Structural and thermodynamic limits of layer thickness in 2D halide perovskites.

In the fast-evolving field of halide perovskite semiconductors, the 2D perovskites (A')2(A) n-1M n X3n+1 [where A = Cs+, CH3NH3+, HC(NH2)2+; A' = ammonium cation acting as spacer; M = Ge2+, Sn2+, Pb2+; and X = Cl-, Br-, I-] have recently made a critical entry. The n value defines the thickness of the 2D layers, which controls the optical and electronic properties. The 2D perovskites have demonstrated preliminary optoelectronic device lifetime superior to their 3D counterparts. They have also attracted fundamental interest as solution-processed quantum wells with structural and physical properties tunable via chemical composition, notably by the n value defining the perovskite layer thickness. The higher members (n > 5) have not been documented, and there are important scientific questions underlying fundamental limits for n To develop and utilize these materials in technology, it is imperative to understand their thermodynamic stability, fundamental synthetic limitations, and the derived structure-function relationships. We report the effective synthesis of the highest iodide n-members yet, namely (CH3(CH2)2NH3)2(CH3NH3)5Pb6I19 (n = 6) and (CH3(CH2)2NH3)2(CH3NH3)6Pb7I22 (n = 7), and confirm the crystal structure with single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and provide indirect evidence for "(CH3(CH2)2NH3)2(CH3NH3)8Pb9I28" ("n = 9"). Direct HCl solution calorimetric measurements show the compounds with n > 7 have unfavorable enthalpies of formation (ΔHf), suggesting the formation of higher homologs to be challenging. Finally, we report preliminary n-dependent solar cell efficiency in the range of 9-12.6% in these higher n-members, highlighting the strong promise of these materials for high-performance devices.

Direct calorimetric verification of thermodynamic instability of lead halide hybrid perovskites.

Hybrid perovskites, especially methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3), exhibit excellent solar power conversion efficiencies. However, their application is plagued by poor chemical and structural stability. Using direct calorimetric measurement of heats of formation, MAPbI3 is shown to be thermodynamically unstable with respect to decomposition to lead iodide and methylammonium iodide, even in the absence of ambient air or light or heat-induced defects, thus limiting its long-term use in devices. The formation enthalpy from binary halide components becomes less favorable in the order MAPbCl3, MAPbBr3, MAPbI3, with only the chloride having a negative heat of formation. Optimizing the geometric match of constituents as measured by the Goldschmidt tolerance factor provides a potentially quantifiable thermodynamic guide for seeking chemical substitutions to enhance stability.

A comparative study of surface energies and water adsorption on Ce-bastnäsite, La-bastnäsite, and calcite via density functional theory and water adsorption calorimetry.

Bastnäsite, a fluoro-carbonate mineral, is the single largest mineral source of light rare earth elements (REE), La, Ce and Nd. Enhancing the efficiency of separation of the mineral from gangue through froth flotation is the first step towards meeting an ever increasing demand for REE. To design and evaluate collector molecules that selectively bind to bastnäsite, a fundamental understanding of the structure and surface properties of bastnäsite is essential. In our earlier work (J. Phys. Chem. C, 2016, 120, 16767), we carried out an extensive study of the structure, surface stability and water adsorption energies of La-bastnäsite. In this work, we make a comparative study of the surface properties of Ce-bastnäsite, La-bastnäsite, and calcite using a combination of density functional theory (DFT) and water adsorption calorimetry. Spin polarized DFT+U calculations show that the exchange interaction between the electrons in Ce 4f orbitals is negligible and that these orbitals do not participate in bonding with the oxygen atom of the adsorbed water molecule. In agreement with calorimetry, DFT calculations predict larger surface energies and stronger water adsorption energies on Ce-bastnäsite than on La-bastnäsite. The order of stabilities for stoichiometric surfaces is as follows: [101[combining macron]0] > [101[combining macron]1] > [101[combining macron]2] > [0001] > [112[combining macron]2] > [101[combining macron]4] and the most favorable adsorption sites for water molecules are the same as for La-bastnäsite. In agreement with water adsorption calorimetry, at low coverage water molecules are strongly stabilized via coordination to the surface Ce3+ ions, whereas at higher coverage they are adsorbed less strongly via hydrogen bonding interaction with the surface anions. Due to similar water adsorption energies on bastnäsite [101[combining macron]1] and calcite [101[combining macron]4] surfaces, the design of collector molecules that selectively bind to bastnäsite over calcite must exploit the structural differences in the predominantly exposed facets of these minerals.

Thermodynamic Properties of Polymorphs of Fluorosulfate Based Cathode Materials with Exchangeable Potassium Ions.

FeSO4 F-based frameworks have recently emerged as attractive candidates for alkali insertion electrodes. Mainly owing to their rich crystal chemistry, they offer a variety of new host structures with different electrochemical performances and physical properties. In this paper we report the thermodynamic stability of two such K-based "FeSO4 F" host structures based on direct solution calorimetric measurements. KFeSO4 F has been reported to crystallize in two different polymorphic modifications-monoclinic and orthorhombic. The obtained enthalpies of formation from binary components (KF plus FeSO4 ) are negative for both polymorphs, indicating that they are thermodynamically stable at room temperature, which is very promising for the future exploration of sulfate based cathode materials. Our measurements show that the low-temperature monoclinic polymorph is enthalpically more stable than the orthorhombic phase by ≈10 kJ mol-1 , which is consistent with the preferential formation of monoclinic KFeSO4 F at low temperature. Furthermore, observed phase transformations and difficulties in the synthesis process can be explained based on the obtained calorimetric results. The KMnSO4 F orthorhombic phase is more stable than both polymorphs of KFeSO4 F.

Thermochemistry of Multiferroic Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Perovskites [(CH3)2NH2][M(HCOO)3] (M = Mn, Co, Ni, and Zn).

Organic-inorganic hybrid materials have enormous potential for applications in catalysis, gas storage, sensors, drug delivery, and energy generation, among others. A class of hybrid materials adopts the ABX3 perovskite topology. We report here the synthesis and characterization of an isostructural series of dense hybrid perovskites, [(CH3)2NH2][M(HCOO)3], with M = Mn, Co, Ni, and Zn. These compounds have shown promising multiferroic behavior. Understanding their stability is crucial for their practical application. We report their formation enthalpies based on direct measurement by room-temperature acid solution calorimetry. The enthalpy of formation of this dimethylammonium metal formate series becomes less exothermic in the order Mn, Zn, Co, Ni. The stability of the hybrid perovskite decreases as the tolerance factor increases, unlike trends seen in inorganic perovskites. However, the trends are similar to those seen in a number of ternary transition metal oxides, suggesting that specific bonding interactions rather than geometric factors dominate the energetics.

Energetics of order-disorder in layered magnesium aluminum double hydroxides with interlayer carbonate.

Laboratory synthesis of layered double hydroxides (LDH) often results in materials replete with stacking faults. Faults are known to affect several properties including sorption, electrochemical, and catalytic activity of this important class of materials. Understanding the occurrence of faults thus calls for a comprehensive analysis of formation and stability of ordered and faulted LDHs. High-temperature oxide melt solution calorimetric measurements made on an ordered and a faulted Mg-Al LDH with carbonate interlayer anion shows that ordered LDH is energetically more stable than the faulted one by ∼6 kJ/mol. The stacking faults are an intergrowth of 3R1 and 2H1 polytypes, and faults could thus mediate transformation of 3R1 to 2H1 polytypes. Several factors including pH and temperature of precipitation also affect layer stacking. The formation of stacking faults could therefore have its origin in kinetics. Water content in the interlayer also affects layer stacking, and hence it may affect properties of LDH. Improved understanding of the distribution of water molecules in LDH is also crucial in an environmental context, as LDH occur as minerals and are important for contaminant amelioration in the environment. Water adsorption calorimetry on dehydrated LDH shows a continuous decrease in the magnitude of adsorption enthalpy with increasing coverage, indicating the presence of energetically heterogeneous sites where the water molecules reside. The results also indicate that the energy of several sites where the water molecules may reside (whether in the interlayer or on the surface) overlaps, and hence it is hard to differentiate among them.