Significance of buoyancy in turbulence closure for computational fluid dynamics modelling of ultraviolet disinfection in maturation ponds.

Buoyancy-driven turbulent dispersion in a maturation pond is studied using a combination of field measurements and computational fluid dynamics. Modelling flow in maturation ponds requires turbulent closure models because of the large physical size and the need to model on diurnal timescales. Simulation results are shown to be more sensitive to the inclusion of a buoyancy production term appearing in the turbulent transport equations than to the model choice. Comparisons with experimental thermal profiles show that without this term, thermal mixing is over-predicted. When including the term, stratification occurs but thermal mixing is under-predicted in the lower water column. In terms of pond performance, the effect of this term is to cause increased surface die-off of Escherichia coli during sunlight hours due to the generation of stratification. It is recommended that future modelling consider and implement this term.

Clinical improvements following bilateral anterior capsulotomy in treatment-resistant depression.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to evaluate a programme of lesion surgery carried out on patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD). METHOD: This was a retrospective study looking at clinical and psychometric data from 45 patients with TRD who had undergone bilateral stereotactic anterior capsulotomy surgery over a period of 15 years, with the approval of the Mental Health Act Commission (37 with unipolar depression and eight with bipolar disorder). The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) before and after surgery was used as the primary outcome measure. The Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale was administered and cognitive aspects of executive and memory functions were also examined. We carried out a paired-samples t test on the outcome measures to determine any statistically significant change in the group as a consequence of surgery. RESULTS: Patients improved on the clinical measure of depression after surgery by -21.20 points on the BDI with a 52% change. There were no significant cognitive changes post-surgery. Six patients were followed up in 2013 by phone interview and reported a generally positive experience. No major surgical complications occurred. CONCLUSIONS: With the limitations of an uncontrolled, observational study, our data suggest that capsulotomy can be an effective treatment for otherwise TRD. Performance on neuropsychological tests did not deteriorate.

Heterogeneity of the cellular immune response. II. The role of adjuvant, lymphocyte stimulation in cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity.

Antigen-mediated stimulation of thymidine incorporation was demonstrated in lymph node cells from guinea pigs immunized with 100 microg human serum albumin in either Freund's incomplete or Freund's complete adjuvant. Animals receiving HSA in IFA exhibited both cutaneous basophil (Jones-Mote) hypersensitivity and lymphocyte stimulation at 1, but not at 6 wk after immunization. Significant stimulation required >/= 10 microg HSA/ml of culture. Sensitization with HSA in CFA produced delayed hypersensitivity and permitted lymphocyte stimulation at both 1 and 6 wk. Stimulation was observed with as little as 0.1 microg HSA/ml at the later interval. Administration of 5 mg HSA intravenously at the time of sensitization with 100 microg HSA in IFA reduced but did not eliminate both CBH and lymphocyte stimulation at 1 wk. Antigen-specific inhibition of macrophage migration could be demonstrated with exudates from animals immunized with HSA in CFA, but not with HSA in IFA at 3 wk after sensitization. HSA was cleared from depots of CFA and IFA at similar rates, but significantly more antigen appeared in the plasma and subsequently in the draining lymph nodes following administration in IFA. Conversely, accumulated antigen disappeared more rapidly following CFA immunization.

Cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity. II. A light and electron microscopic description.

Delayed onset erythematous skin reactions elicited in guinea pigs early in the course of sensitization with azobenzenearsonate-protein conjugates or with protein antigens in incomplete Freund's adjuvant or in saline were found to have a characteristic morphology which sets them apart from delayed hypersensitivity and the classic antibody mediated reactions. The principle feature was massive dermal infiltration with basophilic leukocytes. Mononuclear cells of several types including activated and small lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and blast cells were also present. Such reactions have in the past been designated Jones-Mote hypersensitivity, but we prefer the descriptive term cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity (CBH) for the reasons given. Occasional basophils extruded their granules, and individual granules, retaining their characteristic ultrastructure, were commonly seen in the interstitium. However, intercellular junctions between endothelial cells were closed except during cell emigration and there was no morphologic evidence of an histamine-like effect. The majority of basophils, moreover, did not degranulate but underwent nuclear pyknosis and cytoplasmic degeneration and were phagocytosed by macrophages. Phagocytosed basophil granules retained their ultrastructure. Skin tests performed at late intervals after sensitization had a different time course and morphology. Animals sensitized with protein antigens in complete Freund's adjuvant developed delayed hypersensitivity; however, reactions elicited in such animals at early (but not late) intervals after sensitization contained a prominent basophil component. We interpret such reactions to be a mixture of delayed hypersensitivity and cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity. The function of the basophil in CBH and its relation to the mononuclear cells which accompany it are unknown, and various possibilities are discussed. We conclude that cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity is a distinct immunologic and morphologic entity, occurring early in the course of sensitization with protein antigens incorporated in any of several vehicles. The mechanism of the reaction is presently unknown, and a general hypothesis to explain its pathogenesis has been proposed.

EFNS guidelines on neurostimulation therapy for neuropathic pain.

Pharmacological relief of neuropathic pain is often insufficient. Electrical neurostimulation is efficacious in chronic neuropathic pain and other neurological diseases. European Federation of Neurological Societies (EFNS) launched a Task Force to evaluate the evidence for these techniques and to produce relevant recommendations. We searched the literature from 1968 to 2006, looking for neurostimulation in neuropathic pain conditions, and classified the trials according to the EFNS scheme of evidence for therapeutic interventions. Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is efficacious in failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) type I (level B recommendation). High-frequency transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) may be better than placebo (level C) although worse than electro-acupuncture (level B). One kind of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has transient efficacy in central and peripheral neuropathic pains (level B). Motor cortex stimulation (MCS) is efficacious in central post-stroke and facial pain (level C). Deep brain stimulation (DBS) should only be performed in experienced centres. Evidence for implanted peripheral stimulations is inadequate. TENS and r-TMS are non-invasive and suitable as preliminary or add-on therapies. Further controlled trials are warranted for SCS in conditions other than failed back surgery syndrome and CRPS and for MCS and DBS in general. These chronically implanted techniques provide satisfactory pain relief in many patients, including those resistant to medication or other means.

An introduction to neural networks surgery, a field of neuromodulation which is based on advances in neural networks science and digitised brain imaging.

Operative Neuromodulation is the field of altering electrically or chemically the signal transmission in the nervous system by implanted devices in order to excite, inhibit or tune the activities of neurons or neural networks and produce therapeutic effects. The present article reviews relevant literature on procedures or devices applied either in contact with the cerebral cortex or cranial nerves or in deep sites inside the brain in order to treat various refractory neurological conditions such as: a) chronic pain (facial, somatic, deafferentation, phantom limb), b) movement disorders (Parkinson's disease, dystonia, Tourette syndrome), c) epilepsy, d) psychiatric disease, e) hearing deficits, and f) visual loss. These data indicate that in operative neuromodulation, a new field emerges that is based on neural networks research and on advances in digitised stereometric brain imaging which allow precise localisation of cerebral neural networks and their relay stations; this field can be described as Neural networks surgery because it aims to act extrinsically or intrinsically on neural networks and to alter therapeutically the neural signal transmission with the use of implantable electrical or electronic devices. The authors also review neurotechnology literature relevant to neuroengineering, nanotechnologies, brain computer interfaces, hybrid cultured probes, neuromimetics, neuroinformatics, neurocomputation, and computational neuromodulation; the latter field is dedicated to the study of the biophysical and mathematical characteristics of electrochemical neuromodulation. The article also brings forward particularly interesting lines of research such as the carbon nanofibers electrode arrays for simultaneous electrochemical recording and stimulation, closed-loop systems for responsive neuromodulation, and the intracortical electrodes for restoring hearing or vision. The present review of cerebral neuromodulatory procedures highlights the transition from the conventional neurosurgery of resective or ablative techniques to a highly selective "surgery of networks". The dynamics of the convergence of the above biomedical and technological fields with biological restorative approaches have important implications for patients with severe neurological disorders.

Neurosurgery for psychiatric disorders: from the excision of brain tissue to the chronic electrical stimulation of neural networks.

Neurosurgical treatment for psychiatric disorders has a long and controversial history dating back to antiquity. Both enthusiastic reports and social outcry have accompanied psychosurgical practice, particularly over the last century. Frontal lobotomy has probably been the only medical advance which was first awarded a Nobel prize in medicine and then irreparably stigmatized by scientific rejection and public criticism. In the present paper, the historical milestones of psychosurgery are briefly overviewed. The particular circumstances of the rise and fall of frontal lobotomy are also discussed. Furthermore, the clinical and surgical considerations of the four major psychosurgical procedures which are still in practice are presented. Over the last fifteen years, the advent of deep brain stimulation (DBS) methodology coupled with accurate stereotactic techniques and guided by elaborate neuroimaging methods have revolutionized neurosurgery, particularly for the alleviation of certain disabling movement disorders. Investigationally, chronic electrical stimulation of selected brain structures, clearly implicated in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders, has already been applied with promising results. Given the tainted past of psychiatric neurosurgery, modern neuroscientists have to move forward cautiously, in a scientifically justified and ethically approved framework. The transition from the indiscriminate destruction of brain structures to the selected electrical modulation of neural networks lies ahead; contemporary neuroscientists would substantiate this aim but should remind the controversial history of the field.

An introduction to operative neuromodulation and functional neuroprosthetics, the new frontiers of clinical neuroscience and biotechnology.

Operative neuromodulation is the field of altering electrically or chemically the signal transmission in the nervous system by implanted devices in order to excite, inhibit or tune the activities of neurons or neural networks and produce therapeutic effects. It is a rapidly evolving biomedical and high-technology field on the cutting-edge of developments across a wide range of scientific disciplines. The authors review relevant literature on the neuromodulation procedures that are performed in the spinal cord or peripheral nerves in order to treat a considerable number of conditions such as (a) chronic pain (craniofacial, somatic, pelvic, limb, or due to failed back surgery), (b) spasticity (due to spinal trauma, multiple sclerosis, upper motor neuron disease, dystonia, cerebral palsy, cerebrovascular disease or head trauma), (c) respiratory disorders, (d) cardiovascular ischemia, (e) neuropathic bladder, and (f) bowel dysfunction of neural cause. Functional neuroprosthetics, a field of operative neuromodulation, encompasses the design, construction and implantation of artificial devices capable of generating electrical stimuli, thereby, replacing the function of damaged parts of the nervous system. The present article also reviews important literature on functional neuroprostheses, functional electrical stimulation (FES), and various emerging applications based on microsystems devices, neural engineering, neuroaugmentation, neurostimulation, and assistive technologies. The authors highlight promising lines of research such as endoneural prostheses for peripheral nerve stimulation, closed-loop systems for responsive neurostimulation or implanted microwires for microstimulation of the spinal cord to enable movements of paralyzed limbs. The above growing scientific fields, in combination with biological regenerative methods, are certainly going to enhance the practice of neuromodulation. The range of neuromodulatory procedures in the spine and peripheral nerves and the dynamics of the biomedical and technological domains which are reviewed in this article indicate that new breakthroughs are likely to improve substantially the quality of life of patients who are severely disabled by neurological disorders.

Treatment of a vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium ventricular drain infection with quinupristin/dalfopristin and review of the literature.

Central nervous system infections involving vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREF) are infrequently described and pose significant therapeutic difficulties, because these organisms are intrinsically resistant to many antibiotics. We describe the use of intrathecal quinupristin/dalfopristin to treat a VREF-associated infection in a neuro--surgical patient.

Spinal cord stimulation in 60 cases of intractable pain.

Sixty patients with spinal cord stimulators implanted for intractable pain lasting up to 50 years were followed for up to nine years. Forty seven per cent derived significant benefit, 23% modest benefit, 20% experienced no effect and 6.7% were made worse. Two were made worse after initial benefit. Complications, indications and factors relevant to the mode of action are discussed.

Recurrent self-inflicted craniocerebral injury: case report and review of the literature.

Self-inflicted craniocerebral injuries have been reported exclusively in mentally disturbed patients and criminals. We report a 28-year-old man with a severe mental disorder who initially hammered a nail into his brain and subsequently repeatedly inserted foreign objects into his brain. The literature is reviewed and the surgical and psychiatric management discussed.

Diagnosis and repair of malfunctions of implanted central nervous system stimulators.

Neurostimulator malfunctions must be located and repaired if patients are to receive maximum benefit from central nervous system stimulation. This report lists the problems encountered with the stimulators from four manufacturers. Procedures for locating the source of malfunctions are discussed in some detail.

Supraspinal inhibition of nociceptive dorsal horn neurones in the anaesthetized rat: tonic or dynamic?

1. Tonic inhibition of sensory spinal neurones is well known to descend from the rostroventral medulla. It is not clear if this inhibition is dynamically activated by peripheral noxious stimuli. 2. Transection of the ipsilateral dorsolateral funiculus (DLF) removed a descending inhibition of multireceptive spinal neurones and disproportionally prolonged the after-discharge component of their response to a noxious cutaneous stimulus. 3. Microinjection of GABA or tetracaine into the medullary nucleus gigantocellularis pars alpha (GiA) similarly prolonged the after-discharge in response to noxious stimuli. 4. Recordings of GiA cells, initially using minimal surgery, revealed that many had low levels of spontaneous activity and responded vigorously to noxious stimuli applied to any part of the body surface. One hour after the surgery necessary to expose the spinal cord, GiA cells had a high firing rate but responded weakly to noxious stimuli. 5. The response of GiA cells to noxious stimuli was abolished by transection of only the DLF contralateral to the stimulus. 6. It is concluded that the inhibition of multireceptive dorsal horn neurones from GiA is dynamically activated by noxious cutaneous stimuli via a projection in the contralateral DLF. Surgical exposure of the spinal cord tonically activates this inhibition and masks the dynamic component.