Isolation of an archaeon at the prokaryote-eukaryote interface.

The origin of eukaryotes remains unclear1-4. Current data suggest that eukaryotes may have emerged from an archaeal lineage known as 'Asgard' archaea5,6. Despite the eukaryote-like genomic features that are found in these archaea, the evolutionary transition from archaea to eukaryotes remains unclear, owing to the lack of cultured representatives and corresponding physiological insights. Here we report the decade-long isolation of an Asgard archaeon related to Lokiarchaeota from deep marine sediment. The archaeon-'Candidatus Prometheoarchaeum syntrophicum' strain MK-D1-is an anaerobic, extremely slow-growing, small coccus (around 550 nm in diameter) that degrades amino acids through syntrophy. Although eukaryote-like intracellular complexes have been proposed for Asgard archaea6, the isolate has no visible organelle-like structure. Instead, Ca. P. syntrophicum is morphologically complex and has unique protrusions that are long and often branching. On the basis of the available data obtained from cultivation and genomics, and reasoned interpretations of the existing literature, we propose a hypothetical model for eukaryogenesis, termed the entangle-engulf-endogenize (also known as E3) model.

Promethearchaeum syntrophicum gen. nov., sp. nov., an anaerobic, obligately syntrophic archaeon, the first isolate of the lineage 'Asgard' archaea, and proposal of the new archaeal phylum Promethearchaeota phyl. nov. and kingdom Promethearchaeati regn. nov.

An anaerobic, mesophilic, syntrophic, archaeon strain MK-D1T, was isolated as a pure co-culture with Methanogenium sp. strain MK-MG from deep-sea methane seep sediment. This organism is, to our knowledge, the first cultured representative of 'Asgard' archaea, an archaeal group closely related to eukaryotes. Here, we describe the detailed physiology and phylogeny of MK-D1T and propose Promethearchaeum syntrophicum gen. nov., sp. nov. to accommodate this strain. Cells were non-motile, small cocci, approximately 300-750 nm in diameter and produced membrane vesicles, chains of blebs and membrane-based protrusions. MK-D1T grew at 4-30 °C with optimum growth at 20 °C. The strain grew chemoorganotrophically with amino acids, peptides and yeast extract with obligate dependence on syntrophy with H2-/formate-utilizing organisms. MK-D1T showed the fastest growth and highest maximum cell yield when grown with yeast extract as the substrate: approximately 3 months to full growth, reaching up to 6.7×106 16S rRNA gene copies ml-1. MK-D1T had a circular 4.32 Mb chromosome with a DNA G+C content of 31.1 mol%. The results of phylogenetic analyses of the 16S rRNA gene and conserved marker proteins indicated that the strain is affiliated with 'Asgard' archaea and more specifically DHVC1/DSAG/MBG-B and 'Lokiarchaeota'/'Lokiarchaeia'. On the basis of the results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the most closely related isolated relatives were Infirmifilum lucidum 3507LTT (76.09 %) and Methanothermobacter tenebrarum RMAST (77.45 %) and the closest relative in enrichment culture was Candidatus 'Lokiarchaeum ossiferum' (95.39 %). The type strain of the type species is MK-D1T (JCM 39240T and JAMSTEC no. 115508). We propose the associated family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom as Promethearchaeaceae fam. nov., Promethearchaeales ord. nov., Promethearchaeia class. nov., Promethearchaeota phyl. nov., and Promethearchaeati regn. nov., respectively. These are in accordance with ICNP Rules 8 and 22 for nomenclature, Rule 30(3)(b) for validation and maintenance of the type strain, and Rule 31a for description as a member of an unambiguous syntrophic association.

Application of a porous graphitic carbon column to carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of underivatized individual amino acids using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with elemental analyzer/isotope ratio mass spectrometry.

RATIONALE: Isolation of underivatized amino acids (AAs) using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is becoming a popular method for carbon (δ13 C) and nitrogen isotope (δ15 N) analyses of AAs because of the high analytical precision and for performing dual-isotope analysis. However, some AAs in natural samples, especially small, hydrophilic AAs, are not suitably separated using reversed-phase columns (e.g., C18) and ion-exchange columns (e.g., Primesep A). METHODS: We developed a new method for HPLC using a porous graphitic carbon column for the separation of nine hydrophilic AAs. After purification, δ13 C and δ15 N values of AAs were determined using elemental analyzer/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (EA/IRMS). We demonstrated the application of this method by determining δ13 C and δ15 N values of individual hydrophilic AAs in a biological sample, the muscle of blue mackerel (Scomber australasicus). RESULTS: Chromatographically, the baseline separation of hydrophilic AAs was achieved in both the standard mixture and the biological sample. We confirmed that δ13 C and δ15 N values of AA standards remained unchanged during the whole experimental procedure. The δ13 C values of AAs in mackerel muscle are also in good agreement with the values obtained using another verified method for δ13 C analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The good separation performance of hydrophilic AAs and the reliability of δ13 C and δ15 N analyses of individual AAs using the porous graphite column offer a significant advantage over conventional settings. We suggest that, in the future, the HPLC × EA/IRMS method can be used for reliable δ13 C and δ15 N analyses of AAs in natural samples.

Analytical protocols for Phobos regolith samples returned by the Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) mission.

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) will launch a spacecraft in 2024 for a sample return mission from Phobos (Martian Moons eXploration: MMX). Touchdown operations are planned to be performed twice at different landing sites on the Phobos surface to collect > 10 g of the Phobos surface materials with coring and pneumatic sampling systems on board. The Sample Analysis Working Team (SAWT) of MMX is now designing analytical protocols of the returned Phobos samples to shed light on the origin of the Martian moons as well as the evolution of the Mars-moon system. Observations of petrology and mineralogy, and measurements of bulk chemical compositions and stable isotopic ratios of, e.g., O, Cr, Ti, and Zn can provide crucial information about the origin of Phobos. If Phobos is a captured asteroid composed of primitive chondritic materials, as inferred from its reflectance spectra, geochemical data including the nature of organic matter as well as bulk H and N isotopic compositions characterize the volatile materials in the samples and constrain the type of the captured asteroid. Cosmogenic and solar wind components, most pronounced in noble gas isotopic compositions, can reveal surface processes on Phobos. Long- and short-lived radionuclide chronometry such as 53Mn-53Cr and 87Rb-87Sr systematics can date pivotal events like impacts, thermal metamorphism, and aqueous alteration on Phobos. It should be noted that the Phobos regolith is expected to contain a small amount of materials delivered from Mars, which may be physically and chemically different from any Martian meteorites in our collection and thus are particularly precious. The analysis plan will be designed to detect such Martian materials, if any, from the returned samples dominated by the endogenous Phobos materials in curation procedures at JAXA before they are processed for further analyses.

Quantification and Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopic Measurements of Heme B in Environmental Samples.

Heme B is an iron-coordinated tetrapyrrole molecule that acts as a cofactor in hemoproteins. It is expected to be ubiquitous in the environment, as b-type hemoproteins catalyze a variety of essential biochemical reactions. In this study, we developed an analytical method to quantify heme B in biological and environmental samples using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to a photodiode array detector. The applicability of our method was further extended by the use of liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS; detection limit: ∼1 fmol), which enabled the quantification of a trace amount of dissolved heme B in filtered seawater and sedimentary heme B coexisting with an abundant interfering organic matrix. For compound-specific carbon and nitrogen isotopic measurements, heme B was successfully isolated and purified from biological and environmental samples by a combination of anion-exchange column chromatography, methyl esterification, and dual-step HPLC. While carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions of heme B in phototrophs were mostly comparable to those of chlorophyll a, heme B in suspended particulate materials in coastal water and an intertidal sediment was 13C-depleted and 15N-enriched relative to chlorophyll a, suggesting that nonphototrophic microorganisms are also a significant source of heme B in natural environments.

A method for stable carbon isotope measurement of underivatized individual amino acids by multi-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography and elemental analyzer/isotope ratio mass spectrometry.

RATIONALE: To achieve better precision and accuracy for δ13 C analysis of individual amino acids (AAs), we have developed a new analytical method based on multi-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and elemental analyzer/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (EA/IRMS). Unlike conventional methods using gas chromatography, this approach omits pre-column chemical derivatization, thus reducing systematic errors associated with the isotopic measurement. METHODS: The separation and isolation of individual AAs in a standard mixture containing 15 AAs and a biological sample, spear squid (Heterololigo bleekeri) were performed. AAs were isolated using an HPLC system equipped with a reversed-phase column and a mixed-mode column and collected using a fraction collector. After the chromatographic separation and further post-HPLC purification, the δ13 C values of AAs were measured by EA/IRMS. RESULTS: The complete isolation of all 15 AAs in the standard mixture was achieved. The δ13 C values of these AAs before and after the experiment were in good agreement. Also, 15 AAs in the biological sample, H. bleekeri, were successfully measured. The δ13 C values of AAs in H. bleekeri varied by as much as 30‰ with glycine being most enriched in13 C. CONCLUSIONS: The consistency between the δ13 C values of reference and processed AAs demonstrates that the experimental procedure generates accurate δ13 C values unaffected by fractionation effects and contamination. This method is therefore suitable for δ13 C analysis of biological samples with higher precision than conventional approaches. We propose this new method as a tool to measure δ13 C values of AAs in biological, ecological and biogeochemical studies.

Improved Method for Isolation and Purification of Underivatized Amino Acids for Radiocarbon Analysis.

We have improved a method for isolation and purification of individual amino acids for compound-specific radiocarbon analysis (CSRA). To remove high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) eluent blanks from isolated amino acid fractions prior to the radiocarbon (Δ14C) measurement, each fraction was filtered through a membrane filter and then washed with diethyl ether twice. Radiocarbon measurements on standard amino acids processed and purified with the above method using elemental analyzer-accelerator mass spectrometry resulted in Δ14C values that were in strong agreement ( R2 = 0.998) with the original Δ14C value of each amino acid standard. From these measurements, we calculate dead and modern carbon contamination contributions as 1.2 ± 0.2 and 0.3 ± 0.1 µgC, respectively, which are consistent with direct assessments of HPLC procedural blanks of 1.0 ± 0.8 µgC per sample. These contamination constraints allow correction of measured Δ14C values for accurate and precise CSRA and are widely applicable to future archeological and biogeochemical studies.

d-Amino acids in molecular evolution in space - Absolute asymmetric photolysis and synthesis of amino acids by circularly polarized light.

Living organisms on the Earth almost exclusively use l-amino acids for the molecular architecture of proteins. The biological occurrence of d-amino acids is rare, although their functions in various organisms are being gradually understood. A possible explanation for the origin of biomolecular homochirality is the delivery of enantioenriched molecules via extraterrestrial bodies, such as asteroids and comets on early Earth. For the asymmetric formation of amino acids and their precursor molecules in interstellar environments, the interaction with circularly polarized photons is considered to have played a potential role in causing chiral asymmetry. In this review, we summarize recent progress in the investigation of chirality transfer from chiral photons to amino acids involving the two major processes of asymmetric photolysis and asymmetric synthesis. We will discuss analytical data on cometary and meteoritic amino acids and their potential impact delivery to the early Earth. The ongoing and future ambitious space missions, Hayabusa2, OSIRIS-REx, ExoMars 2020, and MMX, are scheduled to provide new insights into the chirality of extraterrestrial organic molecules and their potential relation to the terrestrial homochirality. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: d-Amino acids: biology in the mirror, edited by Dr. Loredano Pollegioni, Dr. Jean-Pierre Mothet and Dr. Molla Gianluca.

Quantitative analysis of coenzyme F430 in environmental samples: a new diagnostic tool for methanogenesis and anaerobic methane oxidation.

Coenzyme F430 is a nickel hydrocorphinoid and is the prosthetic group of methyl-coenzyme M reductase that catalyzes the last step of the methanogenic reaction sequence and its reversed reaction for anaerobic methane oxidation by ANME. As such, function-specific compound analysis has the potential to reveal the microbial distribution and activity associated with methane production and consumption in natural environments and, in particular, in deep subsurface sediments where microbiological and geochemical techniques are restricted. Herein, we report the development of a technique for high-sensitivity analysis of F430 in environmental samples, including paddy soils, marine sediments, microbial mats, and an anaerobic groundwater. The lower detection limit of F430 analysis by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry is 0.1 femto mol, which corresponds to 6 × 10(2) to 1 × 10(4) cells of methanogens. F430 concentrations in these natural environmental samples range from 63 × 10(-6) to 44 nmol g(-1) and are consistent with the methanogenic archaeal biomass estimated by microbiological analyses.

Nitrogen K-edge X-ray adsorption near-edge structure spectroscopy of chemically adsorbed ammonia gas on clay minerals and the 15N/14N-nitrogen isotopic fractionation.

Ammonia (NH3) is a simple and essential nitrogen carrier in the universe. Its adsorption on mineral surfaces is an important step in the synthesis of nitrogenous organic molecules in extraterrestrial environments. The nitrogen isotopic ratios provide a useful tool for understanding the formation processes of N-bearing molecules. In this study, adsorption experiments were conducted using gaseous NH3 and representative clay minerals. The strongly adsorbed NH3 was 15N-enriched in a state of chemical equilibrium between the adsorption and desorption on the siliceous host surface. The nitrogen K-edge X-ray adsorption near-edge structure spectroscopy study revealed that these initial ammonia gases were chemically adsorbed as ammonium ions (NH4+) on clay minerals.

Breunnerite grain and magnesium isotope chemistry reveal cation partitioning during aqueous alteration of asteroid Ryugu.

Returned samples from the carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu provide pristine information on the original aqueous alteration history of the Solar System. Secondary precipitates, such as carbonates and phyllosilicates, reveal elemental partitioning of the major component ions linked to the primordial brine composition of the asteroid. Here, we report on the elemental partitioning and Mg isotopic composition (25Mg/24Mg) of breunnerite [(Mg, Fe, Mn)CO3] from the Ryugu C0002 sample and the A0106 and C0107 aggregates by sequential leaching extraction of salts, exchangeable ions, carbonates, and silicates. Breunnerite was the sample most enriched in light Mg isotopes, and the 25Mg/24Mg value of the fluid had shifted lower by ~0.38‰ than the initial value (set to 0‰) before dolomite precipitation. As a simple model, the Mg2+ first precipitated in phyllosilicates, followed by dolomite precipitation, at which time ~76-87% of Mg2+ had been removed from the primordial brine. A minor amount of phyllosilicate precipitation continued after dolomite precipitation. The element composition profiles of the latest solution that interacted with the cation exchange pool of Ryugu were predominantly Na-rich. Na+ acts as a bulk electrolyte and contributes to the stabilization of the negative surface charge of phyllosilicates and organic matter on Ryugu.

Primordial aqueous alteration recorded in water-soluble organic molecules from the carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu.

We report primordial aqueous alteration signatures in water-soluble organic molecules from the carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu by the Hayabusa2 spacecraft of JAXA. Newly identified low-molecular-weight hydroxy acids (HO-R-COOH) and dicarboxylic acids (HOOC-R-COOH), such as glycolic acid, lactic acid, glyceric acid, oxalic acid, and succinic acid, are predominant in samples from the two touchdown locations at Ryugu. The quantitative and qualitative profiles for the hydrophilic molecules between the two sampling locations shows similar trends within the order of ppb (parts per billion) to ppm (parts per million). A wide variety of structural isomers, including α- and ß-hydroxy acids, are observed among the hydrophilic molecules. We also identify pyruvic acid and dihydroxy and tricarboxylic acids, which are biochemically important intermediates relevant to molecular evolution, such as the primordial TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle. Here, we find evidence that the asteroid Ryugu samples underwent substantial aqueous alteration, as revealed by the presence of malonic acid during keto-enol tautomerism in the dicarboxylic acid profile. The comprehensive data suggest the presence of a series for water-soluble organic molecules in the regolith of Ryugu and evidence of signatures in coevolutionary aqueous alteration between water and organics in this carbonaceous asteroid.

Soluble organic matter Molecular atlas of Ryugu reveals cold hydrothermalism on C-type asteroid parent body.

The sample from the near-Earth carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu is analyzed in the context of carbonaceous meteorites soluble organic matter. The analysis of soluble molecules of samples collected by the Hayabusa2 spacecraft shines light on an extremely high molecular diversity on the C-type asteroid. Sequential solvent extracts of increasing polarity of Ryugu samples are analyzed using mass spectrometry with complementary ionization methods and structural information confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Here we show a continuum in the molecular size and polarity, and no organomagnesium molecules are detected, reflecting a low temperature and water-rich environment on the parent body approving earlier mineralogical and chemical data. High abundance of sulfidic and nitrogen rich compounds as well as high abundance of ammonium ions confirm the water processing. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are also detected in a structural continuum of carbon saturations and oxidations, implying multiple origins of the observed organic complexity, thus involving generic processes such as earlier carbonization and serpentinization with successive low temperature aqueous alteration.

Uracil in the carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu.

The pristine sample from the near-Earth carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu collected by the Hayabusa2 spacecraft enabled us to analyze the pristine extraterrestrial material without uncontrolled exposure to the Earth's atmosphere and biosphere. The initial analysis team for the soluble organic matter reported the detection of wide variety of organic molecules including racemic amino acids in the Ryugu samples. Here we report the detection of uracil, one of the four nucleobases in ribonucleic acid, in aqueous extracts from Ryugu samples. In addition, nicotinic acid (niacin, a B3 vitamer), its derivatives, and imidazoles were detected in search for nitrogen heterocyclic molecules. The observed difference in the concentration of uracil between A0106 and C0107 may be related to the possible differences in the degree of alteration induced by energetic particles such as ultraviolet photons and cosmic rays. The present study strongly suggests that such molecules of prebiotic interest commonly formed in carbonaceous asteroids including Ryugu and were delivered to the early Earth.

Chemical evolution of primordial salts and organic sulfur molecules in the asteroid 162173 Ryugu.

Samples from the carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu provide information on the chemical evolution of organic molecules in the early solar system. Here we show the element partitioning of the major component ions by sequential extractions of salts, carbonates, and phyllosilicate-bearing fractions to reveal primordial brine composition of the primitive asteroid. Sodium is the dominant electrolyte of the salt fraction extract. Anions and NH4+ are more abundant in the salt fraction than in the carbonate and phyllosilicate fractions, with molar concentrations in the order SO42- > Cl- > S2O32- > NO3- > NH4+. The salt fraction extracts contain anionic soluble sulfur-bearing species such as Sn-polythionic acids (n < 6), Cn-alkylsulfonates, alkylthiosulfonates, hydroxyalkylsulfonates, and hydroxyalkylthiosulfonates (n < 7). The sulfur-bearing soluble compounds may have driven the molecular evolution of prebiotic organic material transforming simple organic molecules into hydrophilic, amphiphilic, and refractory S allotropes.

Soluble organic molecules in samples of the carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu.

The Hayabusa2 spacecraft collected samples from the surface of the carbonaceous near-Earth asteroid (162173) Ryugu and brought them to Earth. The samples were expected to contain organic molecules, which record processes that occurred in the early Solar System. We analyzed organic molecules extracted from the Ryugu surface samples. We identified a variety of molecules containing the atoms CHNOS, formed by methylation, hydration, hydroxylation, and sulfurization reactions. Amino acids, aliphatic amines, carboxylic acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and nitrogen-heterocyclic compounds were detected, which had properties consistent with an abiotic origin. These compounds likely arose from an aqueous reaction on Ryugu's parent body and are similar to the organics in Ivuna-type meteorites. These molecules can survive on the surfaces of asteroids and be transported throughout the Solar System.

Noble gases and nitrogen in samples of asteroid Ryugu record its volatile sources and recent surface evolution.

The near-Earth carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu is expected to contain volatile chemical species that could provide information on the origin of Earth's volatiles. Samples of Ryugu were retrieved by the Hayabusa2 spacecraft. We measured noble gas and nitrogen isotopes in Ryugu samples and found that they are dominated by presolar and primordial components, incorporated during Solar System formation. Noble gas concentrations are higher than those in Ivuna-type carbonaceous (CI) chondrite meteorites. Several host phases of isotopically distinct nitrogen have different abundances among the samples. Our measurements support a close relationship between Ryugu and CI chondrites. Noble gases produced by galactic cosmic rays, indicating a ~5 million year exposure, and from implanted solar wind record the recent irradiation history of Ryugu after it migrated to its current orbit.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in samples of Ryugu formed in the interstellar medium.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contain ≲20% of the carbon in the interstellar medium. They are potentially produced in circumstellar environments (at temperatures ≳1000 kelvin), by reactions within cold (~10 kelvin) interstellar clouds, or by processing of carbon-rich dust grains. We report isotopic properties of PAHs extracted from samples of the asteroid Ryugu and the meteorite Murchison. The doubly-13C substituted compositions (Δ2×13C values) of the PAHs naphthalene, fluoranthene, and pyrene are 9 to 51‰ higher than values expected for a stochastic distribution of isotopes. The Δ2×13C values are higher than expected if the PAHs formed in a circumstellar environment, but consistent with formation in the interstellar medium. By contrast, the PAHs phenanthrene and anthracene in Ryugu samples have Δ2×13C values consistent with formation by higher-temperature reactions.

Prebiotic organic microstructures.

Micro- and sub-micrometer spheres, tubules and fiber-filament soft structures have been synthesized in our experiments conducted with 3 MeV proton irradiations of a mixture of simple inorganic constituents, CO, N(2) and H(2)O. We analysed the irradiation products, with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). These laboratory organic structures produced a wide variety of proteinaceous and non-proteinaceous amino acids after HCl hydrolysis. The enantiomer analysis for D,L-alanine confirmed that the amino acids were abiotically synthesized during the laboratory experiment. We discuss the presence of CO(2) and the production of H(2) during exothermic processes of serpentinization and consequently we discuss the production of hydrothermal CO in a ferromagnesian silicate mineral environment. We also discuss the low intensity of the Earth's magnetic field during the Paleoarchaean Era and consequently we conclude that excitation sources arising from cosmic radiation were much more abundant during this Era. We then show that our laboratory prebiotic microstructures might be synthesized during the Archaean Eon, as a product of the serpentinization process of the rocks and of their mineral contents.

Identifying the wide diversity of extraterrestrial purine and pyrimidine nucleobases in carbonaceous meteorites.

The lack of pyrimidine diversity in meteorites remains a mystery since prebiotic chemical models and laboratory experiments have predicted that these compounds can also be produced from chemical precursors found in meteorites. Here we report the detection of nucleobases in three carbonaceous meteorites using state-of-the-art analytical techniques optimized for small-scale quantification of nucleobases down to the range of parts per trillion (ppt). In addition to previously detected purine nucleobases in meteorites such as guanine and adenine, we identify various pyrimidine nucleobases such as cytosine, uracil, and thymine, and their structural isomers such as isocytosine, imidazole-4-carboxylic acid, and 6-methyluracil, respectively. Given the similarity in the molecular distribution of pyrimidines in meteorites and those in photon-processed interstellar ice analogues, some of these derivatives could have been generated by photochemical reactions prevailing in the interstellar medium and later incorporated into asteroids during solar system formation. This study demonstrates that a diversity of meteoritic nucleobases could serve as building blocks of DNA and RNA on the early Earth.