Cortisol is More Important than Metanephrines in Driving Changes in Leukocyte Counts after Stroke.

BACKGROUND: There are notable changes in the number of white blood cells (WBCs) after stroke, but the primary mediators of these changes are unclear. In this study, we assessed the role of the neuroendocrine and sympathetic nervous systems in stroke-induced changes of WBCs within distinct leukocyte subsets, as well as the effect of these changes on stroke outcomes. METHODS: Patients were recruited within 72 hours after ischemic stroke; complete blood count with differential was obtained at set time points. The relationships among leukocyte numbers, cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone, interleukin-6, and metanephrines were assessed at 72 hours after stroke. Associations between abnormal leukocyte counts at 72 hours, poststroke infection, and 3-month outcomes were determined. RESULTS: A total of 114 subjects were enrolled. Severe stroke was associated with leukocytosis, neutrophilia, monocytosis, lymphopenia, and eosinopenia. At 72 hours after stroke, increased serum cortisol was independently associated with neutrophilia and lymphopenia. Abnormal leukocyte counts were not independently predictive of poststroke infection, but lymphopenia was associated with poor outcome (modified Rankin score >3) at 3 months after stroke (odds ratio = 22.86 [1.95, 267.65]; P = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Increased serum cortisol is independently associated with neutrophilia and lymphopenia after stroke. Lymphopenia is not an independent predictor of infections but is independently associated with worse outcome.

Poststroke fatigue: hints to a biological mechanism.

BACKGROUND: Poststroke fatigue (PSF) is common, but the biological basis of this fatigue is unknown. We explored the possibility that PSF is related to systemic inflammation by investigating polymorphisms in 2 genes that affect the immune response. METHODS: In a substudy of a larger trial that evaluated the role of the immune response on stroke outcome, fatigue was assessed at 30, 90, 180, and 365 days after ischemic stroke using the Fatigue Assessment Scale. Subjects were genotyped for 3 single nucleotide polymorphisms, one in the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene (IL1RN; rs4251961, a T/C substitution) and two in the in toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) gene (1063 A/G [Asp299Gly] rs4986790 and 1363 C/T [Thr399Ile] rs4986791). RESULTS: Of the 39 participants, 22 (56%) endorsed fatigue during the study. The degree of fatigue was remarkably constant over time and independent of stroke outcome. The C allele of the rs4251961 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in IL1RN was associated with self-reported fatigue (P = .03), whereas the cosegregating polymorphisms in TLR4 were associated with lower levels of fatigue (P= .04). CONCLUSIONS: SNPs in 2 genes with opposing effects on inflammatory immune responses were significantly, but differentially, associated with PSF. These findings suggest a direct link between immune signaling dysregulation and PSF.

Peroxiredoxin 5 (PRX5) is correlated inversely to systemic markers of inflammation in acute stroke.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Peroxiredoxins are endogenous antioxidants that function as peroxide and peroxynitrite scavengers. Extracellular peroxiredoxins, however, are shown to initiate inflammation within the ischemic brain through activation of Toll-like receptors. Based on this observation, we hypothesized that plasma peroxiredoxin concentrations in ischemic stroke would correlate biomarkers of inflammation and predict poor outcome. METHODS: In a prospective study of patients with ischemic stroke, plasma peroxiredoxin 5 (PRX5) concentrations and inflammatory biomarkers at day 3 after stroke onset were correlated and the association between PRX5 at day 3 and outcome at 3 months assessed. RESULTS: PRX5 concentrations were available for 98 patients and were lower in those with more severe strokes (P=0.001). PRX5 was inversely correlated to biomarkers of inflammation at day 3 after stroke and did not predict 3-month outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Plasma PRX5 is decreased in severe stoke and inversely correlated to biomarkers of systemic inflammation. These data suggest that PRX5 is not a proinflammatory mediator in acute stroke. Moreover, the inverse relationship between PRX5 and stroke severity suggests that PRX5 is either consumed or its production is impaired in severe stroke. Further study is needed to define the potential role of PRX5 in stroke.

Stroke, IL-1ra, IL1RN, infection and outcome.

BACKGROUND: Infection is a common phenomenon following stroke, and adversely affects outcome. Previous studies suggest that interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the IL1RN gene might influence the risk of post-stroke infection and outcome. In this study, we addressed the effects of the rs4251961 SNP in IL1RN on infection risk and outcome. METHODS: Subjects with acute ischemic stroke were enrolled within 72 h of symptom onset and followed up to 1 year. Plasma IL-1ra was measured at multiple time points and outcome assessed at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months. Active surveillance for infection occurred while subjects were hospitalized. Subjects were genotyped for the IL1RN rs4251961 polymorphism. RESULTS: In the population of 113 subjects for this study, those with the minor C allele of rs4251961 polymorphism in IL1RN were more likely to be Caucasian, hypertensive, and to be afflicted with coronary heart disease. Higher plasma IL-1ra was associated with an increased risk of infection (other than pneumonia), and the minor C allele of rs4251961 was independently associated with a decreased risk of infection (other than pneumonia). Initial plasma IL-1ra was not predictive of long-term outcome, but patients with the minor C allele of rs4251961 were more likely to experience good (modified Rankin Score <2) long-term outcome. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that IL-1ra and IL1RN may influence the risk of infection after stroke, but this influence seems limited to infections other than pneumonia. Further studies are needed to better understand the complexities of immune regulation on infection and outcome after stroke.

Severe stroke induces long-lasting alterations of high-mobility group box 1.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The signals that initiate the poststroke inflammatory response are unknown. High-mobility group box (HMGB) 1 protein is a nuclear protein that is passively released from necrotic tissue and is able to activate leukocytes, which in turn secrete HMGB1. HMGB1 is also able to activate antigen-presenting cells and therefore stands at the crossroads of innate and adaptive immunity. METHODS: Plasma HMGB1 concentrations were determined at multiple time points after ischemic stroke (N=110) and correlated to stroke severity and biomarkers of inflammation. The relationships between HMGB1, stroke outcome, and autoimmune responses to brain antigens were also assessed. RESULTS: Stroke resulted in an increase in HMGB1 that persisted for 30 days. Plasma HMGB1 was correlated with the number of circulating leukocytes but was not predictive of either stroke outcome or the development of autoimmune responses to brain antigens. Patients with a Th1(+) response to myelin basic protein at 90 days after stroke, however, had higher plasma HMGB1. CONCLUSIONS: HMGB1 appears to be involved in the postischemic inflammatory response, but it remains unclear whether HMGB1 initiates this response or merely reflects activation of leukocytes by another signal.

Higher plasma fractalkine is associated with better 6-month outcome from ischemic stroke.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Fractalkine (CX3CL1) is a unique chemokine that is constitutively expressed on neurons where it serves as an adhesion molecule for lymphocytes and monocytes. CX3CL1 may also be cleaved from the surface of these cells and enter the circulation to act as a traditional chemokine. CX3CL1 could thus influence the inflammatory response after stroke. We hypothesized that patients with higher plasma CX3CL1 after stroke would have a more robust inflammatory response and experience worse outcome. METHODS: Plasma CX3CL1 concentrations were assessed in 85 patients who were part of a larger study evaluating immune responses after ischemic stroke; CX3CL1 values were available from Day 1 to Day 180 after stroke onset. CX3CL1 was correlated to measures of inflammation and its effect on outcome assessed. RESULTS: At 1 day after stroke, CX3CL1 was lower in patients with severe strokes. At 180 days after stroke, CX3CL1 concentrations were lower in patients with poor outcome. The association of CX3CL1 and outcome at 180 days was independent of initial stroke severity. Plasma CX3CL1 at 180 days was inversely associated with systemic markers of inflammation, including white blood cell counts and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein. CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to our original hypothesis, lower concentrations of CX3CL1 are associated with worse stroke outcome. In light of recent studies suggesting an immunomodulatory and neuroprotective role for CX3CL1 in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, a therapeutic role for CX3CL1 in stroke recovery should be considered.

Antibodies to myelin basic protein are associated with cognitive decline after stroke.

B lymphocytes cause post-stroke cognitive decline in mice. We therefore evaluated the association between autoantibodies and post-stroke cognitive decline in a prospectively collected human cohort. The mini-mental state exam (MMSE) was administered 30, 90, 180, and 365days after stroke. Antibody titers to myelin basic protein (MBP), proteolipid protein, and several non-specific proteins were determined. Among 58 subjects with initial MMSE≥20 and at least 2 MMSE examinations in the year after stroke, cognitive decline (MMSE decrease ≥2) occurred in 10 (17%) subjects. In multivariate analysis, MBP antibody titers were the only independent predictor of cognitive decline (OR=9.02 [1.18, 68.90]; P=0.03).

Effect of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure on Stroke Rehabilitation: A Pilot Randomized Sham-Controlled Trial.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) predicts poor functional outcome after stroke and increases the risk for recurrent stroke. Less is known about continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment on stroke recovery. METHODS: In a pilot randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trial, adult stroke rehabilitation patients were assigned to auto-titrating or sham CPAP without diagnostic testing for OSA. Change in Functional Independence Measure (FIM), a measure of disability, was assessed between rehabilitation admission and discharge. RESULTS: Over 18 months, 40 patients were enrolled and 10 withdrew from the study: 7 from active and 3 from sham CPAP (p > 0.10). For the remaining 30 patients, median duration of CPAP use was 14 days. Average CPAP use was 3.7 h/night, with at least 4 h nightly use among 15 patients. Adherence was not influenced by treatment assignment or stroke severity. In intention-to-treat analyses (n = 40), the median change in FIM favored active CPAP over sham but did not reach statistical significance (34 versus 26, p = 0.25), except for the cognitive component (6 versus 2.5, p = 0.04). The on-treatment analyses (n = 30) yielded similar results (total FIM: 32 versus 26, p = 0.11; cognitive FIM: 6 versus 2, p = 0.06). CONCLUSIONS: A sham-controlled CPAP trial among stroke rehabilitation patients was feasible in terms of recruitment, treatment without diagnostic testing and adequate blinding-though was limited by study retention and CPAP adherence. Despite these limitations, a trend towards a benefit of CPAP on recovery was evident. Tolerance and adherence must be improved before the full benefits of CPAP on recovery can be assessed in larger trials.

Functional polymorphisms in toll-like receptor 4 are associated with worse outcome in acute ischemic stroke patients.

Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) is important in neuroinflammation. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in TLR4, including 1063 A/G [Asp299Gly] and 1363 C/T [Thr399Ile], are associated with altered immune responses but their effect on acute ischemic stroke (AIS) outcome is unknown. We collected demographic, clinical, laboratory, radiologic, and genotype data on 113 AIS patients and performed multivariate analyses to assess associations between TLR4 SNP haplotype and either neurological outcome, infection, or inflammatory markers. In adjusted analyses, TLR4 SNPs were associated with worse outcome as well as increases in circulating leukocytes, C-reactive protein, and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. In AIS, variations in TLR4 may influence neurological outcome (for video abstract, please see Supplemental digital content 1 file, http://links.lww.com/WNR/A274).

Myelin basic protein autoantibodies, white matter disease and stroke outcome.

Antibodies to brain antigens are present in stroke survivors. In this study, we assessed autoantibody responses to white matter antigens, their correlation to white matter disease and stroke outcome. Antibody titers (immunoglobulin G [igG]) to myelin basic protein (MBP), proteolipid protein (PLP) and tetanus toxoid (TT) were available at one or more time points for 112 subjects with ischemic stroke. In comparison to the control subjects (N=40), there was a global decrease in IgG titers to TT early after stroke. Patients with white matter disease on magnetic resonance imaging had elevated titers of antibodies to both MBP and PLP at 30days after stroke, and anti-MBP antibodies were associated with worse outcome. The potential pathologic consequences of antibodies to white matter, especially MBP, is deserving of further investigation.