Computational design of a synthetic PD-1 agonist.

Programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) expressed on activated T cells inhibits T cell function and proliferation to prevent an excessive immune response, and disease can result if this delicate balance is shifted in either direction. Tumor cells often take advantage of this pathway by overexpressing the PD-1 ligand PD-L1 to evade destruction by the immune system. Alternatively, if there is a decrease in function of the PD-1 pathway, unchecked activation of the immune system and autoimmunity can result. Using a combination of computation and experiment, we designed a hyperstable 40-residue miniprotein, PD-MP1, that specifically binds murine and human PD-1 at the PD-L1 interface with a Kd of ∼100 nM. The apo crystal structure shows that the binder folds as designed with a backbone RMSD of 1.3 Što the design model. Trimerization of PD-MP1 resulted in a PD-1 agonist that strongly inhibits murine T cell activation. This small, hyperstable PD-1 binding protein was computationally designed with an all-beta interface, and the trimeric agonist could contribute to treatments for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

Brief report: STING expressed in tumor and non-tumor compartments has distinct roles in regulating anti-tumor immunity.

Type I interferon-mediated activation of immune cells can facilitate the generation of productive tumor antigen-specific T cell responses in solid tumors. The cGAS/STING DNA sensing pathway is a critical upstream mediator of type I interferon production and is an important regulator of anti-tumor immunity. Numerous STING pathway agonists are now being tested in clinical trials, but the effectiveness of this approach is not yet clear and a better understanding of the relative importance of this pathway in various tumor settings is needed. We have evaluated syngeneic tumor models with different baseline inflammatory states to determine the contributions of STING activity in both tumor and non-tumor cellular compartments to anti-tumor immune responses. We find that productive anti-tumor immune responses in the poorly immunogenic B16F10 model show a strong dependence on STING expression in non-tumor cells. In the immunogenic MC38 model, constitutive STING activation in tumor cells can partially bypass the requirement for STING-dependent activity from immune cells. Our findings reveal multiple, context-dependent roles for STING activity in the regulation of anti-tumor immunity and the response to immunotherapy. In preclinical models where STING is basally active, checkpoint inhibition is more likely to have a therapeutic effect and removal of STING signaling from either the tumor or the non-tumor compartment has a minimal effect. Removal of STING signaling in both, however, diminishes the efficacy derived from checkpoint therapy. Further work is needed to understand the heterogeneity of STING signaling in patients, both in tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment, and the best means of harnessing this pathway to generate anti-tumor immunity and improve therapeutic outcomes.

Extrathymic Aire-expressing cells are a distinct bone marrow-derived population that induce functional inactivation of CD4⁺ T cells.

The autoimmune regulator (Aire) is essential for prevention of autoimmunity; its role is best understood in the thymus, where it promotes self-tolerance through tissue-specific antigen (TSA) expression. Recently, extrathymic Aire-expressing cells (eTACs) have been described in murine secondary lymphoid organs, but the identity of such cells and their role in immune tolerance remains unclear. Here we have shown that eTACs are a discrete major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II)(hi), CD80(lo), CD86(lo), epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM)(hi), CD45(lo) bone marrow-derived peripheral antigen-presenting cell (APC) population. We also have demonstrated that eTACs can functionally inactivate CD4⁺ T cells through a mechanism that does not require regulatory T cells (Treg) and is resistant to innate inflammatory stimuli. Together, these findings further define eTACs as a distinct tolerogenic cell population in secondary lymphoid organs.

Innate immune stimulation of whole blood reveals IFN-1 hyper-responsiveness in type 1 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Self-antigen-specific T cell responses drive type 1 diabetes pathogenesis, but alterations in innate immune responses are also critical and not as well understood. Innate immunity in human type 1 diabetes has primarily been assessed via gene-expression analysis of unstimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells, without the immune activation that could amplify disease-associated signals. Increased responsiveness in each of the two main innate immune pathways, driven by either type 1 IFN (IFN-1) or IL-1, have been detected in type 1 diabetes, but the dominant innate pathway is still unclear. This study aimed to determine the key innate pathway in type 1 diabetes and assess the whole blood immune stimulation assay as a tool to investigate this. METHODS: The TruCulture whole blood ex vivo stimulation assay, paired with gene expression and cytokine measurements, was used to characterise changes in the stimulated innate immune response in type 1 diabetes. We applied specific cytokine-induced signatures to our data, pre-defined from the same assays measured in a separate cohort of healthy individuals. In addition, NOD mice were stimulated with CpG and monocyte gene expression was measured. RESULTS: Monocytes from NOD mice showed lower baseline vs diabetes-resistant B6.g7 mice, but higher induced IFN-1-associated gene expression. In human participants, ex vivo whole blood stimulation revealed higher induced IFN-1 responses in type 1 diabetes, as compared with healthy control participants. In contrast, neither the IL-1-induced gene signature nor response to the adaptive immune stimulant Staphylococcal enterotoxin B were significantly altered in type 1 diabetes samples vs healthy control participants. Targeted gene-expression analysis showed that this enhanced IFN response was specific to IFN-1, as IFN-γ-driven responses were not significantly different. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our study identifies increased responsiveness to IFN-1 as a feature of both the NOD mouse model of autoimmune diabetes and human established type 1 diabetes. A stimulated IFN-1 gene signature may be a potential biomarker for type 1 diabetes and used to evaluate the effects of therapies targeting this pathway. DATA AVAILABILITY: Mouse gene expression data are found in the gene expression omnibus (GEO) repository, accession GSE146452 ( www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE146452 ). Nanostring count data from the human experiments were deposited in the GEO repository, accession GSE146338 ( www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE146338 ). Data files and R code for all analyses are available at https://github.com/rodriguesk/T1D_truculture_diabetologia . Graphical abstract.

The Importance of Dendritic Cells in Maintaining Immune Tolerance.

Immune tolerance is necessary to prevent the immune system from reacting against self, and thus to avoid the development of autoimmune diseases. In this review, we discuss key findings that position dendritic cells (DCs) as critical modulators of both thymic and peripheral immune tolerance. Although DCs are important for inducing both immunity and tolerance, increased autoimmunity associated with decreased DCs suggests their nonredundant role in tolerance induction. DC-mediated T cell immune tolerance is an active process that is influenced by genetic variants, environmental signals, as well as the nature of the specific DC subset presenting Ag to T cells. Answering the many open questions with regard to the role of DCs in immune tolerance could lead to the development of novel therapies for the prevention of autoimmune diseases.

Low CD25 on autoreactive Tregs impairs tolerance via low dose IL-2 and antigen delivery.

Dendritic cell (DC)-mediated T cell tolerance deficiencies contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes. Delivering self-antigen to dendritic-cell inhibitory receptor-2 (DCIR2)+ DCs can delay but not completely block diabetes development in NOD mice. These DCIR2-targeting antibodies induce tolerance via deletion and anergy, but do not increase islet-specific Tregs. Because low-dose IL-2 (LD-IL-2) administration can preferentially expand Tregs, we tested whether delivering islet-antigen to tolerogenic DCIR2+ DCs along with LD-IL-2 would boost islet-specific Tregs and further block autoimmunity. But, surprisingly, adding LD-IL-2 did not increase efficacy of DC-targeted antigen to inhibit diabetes. Here we show the effects of LD-IL-2, with or without antigen delivery to DCIR2+ DCs, on both polyclonal and autoreactive Treg and conventional T cells (Tconv). As expected, LD-IL-2 increased total Tregs, but autoreactive Tregs required both antigen and IL-2 stimulation for optimal expansion. Also, islet-specific Tregs had lower CD25 expression and IL-2 sensitivity, while islet-specific Tconv had higher CD25 expression, compared to polyclonal populations. LD-IL-2 increased activation and expansion of Tconv, and was more pronounced for autoreactive cells after treatment with IL-2 + islet-antigen. Therefore, LD-IL-2 therapy, especially when combined with antigen stimulation, may not optimally activate and expand antigen-specific Tregs in chronic autoimmune settings.

Arming Treg cells at the inflammatory site.

In this issue of Immunity, Zhang et al. (2009) propose that Treg cells, in order to efficiently control alloimmune response, need to be educated first in the target tissue before entering the draining lymph node.

Despite Increased Type 1 IFN, Autoimmune Nonobese Diabetic Mice Display Impaired Dendritic Cell Response to CpG and Decreased Nuclear Localization of IFN-Activated STAT1.

Innate immune signals help break self-tolerance to initiate autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes, but innate contributions to subsequent regulation of disease progression are less clear. Most studies have measured in vitro innate responses of GM-CSF dendritic cells (DCs) that are functionally distinct from conventional DCs (cDCs) and do not reflect in vivo DC subsets. To determine whether autoimmune NOD mice have alterations in type 1 IFN innate responsiveness, we compared cDCs from prediabetic NOD and control C57BL/6 (B6) mice stimulated in vivo with the TLR9 ligand CpG, a strong type 1 IFN inducer. In response to CpG, NOD mice produce more type 1 IFN and express higher levels of CD40, and NOD monocyte DCs make more TNF. However, the overall CpG-induced transcriptional response is muted in NOD cDCs. Of relevance the costimulatory proteins CD80/CD86, signals needed for regulatory T cell homeostasis, are upregulated less on NOD cDCs. Interestingly, NOD Rag1(-/-) mice also display a defect in CpG-induced CD86 upregulation compared with B6 Rag1(-/-), indicating this particular innate alteration precedes adaptive autoimmunity. The impaired response in NOD DCs is likely downstream of the IFN-α/ß receptor because DCs from NOD and B6 mice show similar CpG-induced CD86 levels when anti-IFN-α/ß receptor Ab is added. IFN-α-induced nuclear localization of activated STAT1 is markedly reduced in NOD CD11c(+) cells, consistent with lower type 1 IFN responsiveness. In conclusion, NOD DCs display altered innate responses characterized by enhanced type 1 IFN and activation of monocyte-derived DCs but diminished cDC type 1 IFN response.

Interleukin-2-mediated inhibition of dendritic cell development correlates with decreased CD135 expression and increased monocyte/macrophage precursors.

We have previously shown that interleukin-2 (IL-2) inhibits dendritic cell (DC) development from mouse bone marrow (BM) precursors stimulated with the ligand for FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 receptor (Flt3L), and have provided evidence that this inhibition occurs at the monocyte DC precursor stage of DC development. Here, we explored the mechanism of IL-2-mediated inhibition of DC development. First, we showed that these in vitro cultures accurately model DCs that develop in vivo by comparing gene and protein expression of the three main Flt3L-induced DC subsets from the BM, CD11b(+) and CD24(+) conventional DCs (cDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) with their respective ex vivo spleen DC subsets (CD11b(+), CD8(+) and pDCs). Next, gene expression changes were quantified in Flt3L DC subsets that developed in the presence of IL-2. These changes included increased expression of Bcl2l11, which encodes the apoptosis-inducing protein Bim, and decreased expression of Flt3 (CD135), the receptor that initiates DC development. Interleukin-2 also significantly reduced Flt3 protein expression on all three Flt3L DC subsets, and attenuated Flt3L-induced STAT3 phosphorylation in DCs. Based on these data, we hypothesized that decreased Flt3 signalling may divert BM precursors down monocyte and macrophage lineages. Indeed, addition of IL-2 led to increases in Flt3(-) cells, including cKit(+) Ly6C(+) CD11b(-) populations consistent with the recently identified committed monocyte/macrophage progenitor. Therefore, IL-2 can inhibit DC development via decreased signalling through Flt3 and increased monocyte/macrophage development.

DEC-205-mediated antigen targeting to steady-state dendritic cells induces deletion of diabetogenic CD8⁺ T cells independently of PD-1 and PD-L1.

CD8⁺ T cells specific for islet-specific glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit-related protein (IGRP) have been implicated in type 1 diabetes in both humans and non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, in which T cells specific for IGRP206₋214 are highly prevalent. We sought to manipulate these pathogenic T cells by exploiting the ability of steady-state dendritic cells (DCs) to present antigens in a tolerogenic manner. The endocytic receptor DEC-205 was utilized to deliver an IGRP206₋214 mimotope to DCs in NOD mice, and the impact of this delivery on a polyclonal population of endogenous islet-reactive cognate T cells was determined. Assessment of islet-infiltrating CD8⁺ T cells showed a decrease in the percentage, and the absolute number, of endogenous IGRP206₋214-specific T cells when the mimotope was delivered to DCs, compared with delivery of a specificity control. Employing an adoptive transfer system, deletion of CD8⁺ T cells as a result of DEC-205-mediated antigen targeting was found to occur independently of programmed death-1 (PD-1) and its ligand (PD-L1), both often implicated in the regulation of peripheral T-cell tolerance. Given its promise for the manipulation of self-reactive polyclonal T cells demonstrated here, the distinctive characteristics of this antigen delivery system will be important to appreciate as its potential as an intervention for autoimmune diseases continues to be investigated.

Helminth protection against autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice is independent of a type 2 immune shift and requires TGF-ß.

Leading hypotheses to explain helminth-mediated protection against autoimmunity postulate that type 2 or regulatory immune responses induced by helminth infections in the host limit pathogenic Th1-driven autoimmune responses. We tested these hypotheses by investigating whether infection with the filarial nematode Litomosoides sigmodontis prevents diabetes onset in IL-4-deficient NOD mice and whether depletion or absence of regulatory T cells, IL-10, or TGF-ß alters helminth-mediated protection. In contrast to IL-4-competent NOD mice, IL-4-deficient NOD mice failed to develop a type 2 shift in either cytokine or Ab production during L. sigmodontis infection. Despite the absence of a type 2 immune shift, infection of IL-4-deficient NOD mice with L. sigmodontis prevented diabetes onset in all mice studied. Infections in immunocompetent and IL-4-deficient NOD mice were accompanied by increases in CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cell frequencies and numbers, respectively, and helminth infection increased the proliferation of CD4(+)Foxp3(+) cells. However, depletion of CD25(+) cells in NOD mice or Foxp3(+) T cells from splenocytes transferred into NOD.scid mice did not decrease helminth-mediated protection against diabetes onset. Continuous depletion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-ß, but not blockade of IL-10 signaling, prevented the beneficial effect of helminth infection on diabetes. Changes in Th17 responses did not seem to play an important role in helminth-mediated protection against autoimmunity, because helminth infection was not associated with a decreased Th17 immune response. This study demonstrates that L. sigmodontis-mediated protection against diabetes in NOD mice is not dependent on the induction of a type 2 immune shift but does require TGF-ß.

Interleukin-2 inhibits FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 receptor ligand (flt3L)-dependent development and function of conventional and plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

Steady-state development of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) requires the ligand for FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 receptor (flt3L), but little is known about how other cytokines may also control this process. In this study, we show that IL-2 inhibits the development of both pDCs and cDCs from bone marrow cells under flt3L stimulation, by acting on lineage(-) flt3(+) precursors. This inhibition of DC development by IL-2 requires IL-2Rα and IL2Rß. IL-2Rα is specifically expressed in one stage of the DC precursor: the monocyte and DC progenitors (MDPs). Furthermore, more MDPs are found in flt3L-stimulated bone marrow cultures when IL-2 is present, suggesting that IL-2 may be inhibiting DC development at the MDP stage. Consistent with our in vitro findings, we observe that nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice, which express less IL-2 compared with diabetes-resistant NOD.Idd3/5 mice, have more splenic pDCs. Additionally, DCs developed in vitro in the presence of flt3L and IL-2 display reduced ability to stimulate T-cell proliferation compared with DCs developed in the presence of flt3L alone. Although the addition of IL-2 does not increase the apoptosis of DCs during their development, DCs developed in the presence of IL-2 are more prone to apoptosis upon interaction with T cells. Together our data show that IL-2 can inhibit both the development and the function of DCs. This pathway may have implications for the loss of immune tolerance: Reduced IL-2 signaling may lead to increased DC number and T-cell stimulatory capacity.

Corrigendum: Therapeutically targeting type I interferon directly to XCR1+ dendritic cells reveals the role of cDC1s in anti-drug antibodies.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1272055.].

Dendritic cell-expanded, islet-specific CD4+ CD25+ CD62L+ regulatory T cells restore normoglycemia in diabetic NOD mice.

Most treatments that prevent autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice require intervention at early pathogenic stages, when insulitis is first developing. We tested whether dendritic cell (DC)-expanded, islet antigen-specific CD4+ CD25+ suppressor T cells could treat diabetes at later stages of disease, when most of the insulin-producing islet beta cells had been destroyed by infiltrating lymphocytes. CD4+ CD25+ CD62L+ regulatory T cells (T reg cells) from BDC2.5 T cell receptor transgenic mice were expanded with antigen-pulsed DCs and IL-2, and were then injected into NOD mice. A single dose of as few as 5x10(4) of these islet-specific T reg cells blocked diabetes development in prediabetic 13-wk-old NOD mice. The T reg cells also induced long-lasting reversal of hyperglycemia in 50% of mice in which overt diabetes had developed. Successfully treated diabetic mice had similar responses to glucose challenge compared with nondiabetic NOD mice. The successfully treated mice retained diabetogenic T cells, but also had substantially increased Foxp3+ cells in draining pancreatic lymph nodes. However, these Foxp3+ cells were derived from the recipient mice and not the injected T reg cells, suggesting a role for endogenous T reg cells in maintaining tolerance after treatment. Therefore, inoculation of DC-expanded, antigen-specific suppressor T cells has considerable efficacy in ameliorating ongoing diabetes in NOD mice.

Therapeutically targeting type I interferon directly to XCR1+ dendritic cells reveals the role of cDC1s in anti-drug antibodies.

Conventional type 1 dendritic cells (cDC1s) are superior in antigen cross-presentation and priming CD8+ T cell anti-tumor immunity and thus, are a target of high interest for cancer immunotherapy. Type I interferon (IFN) is a potent inducer of antigen cross-presentation, but, unfortunately, shows only modest results in the clinic given the short half-life and high toxicity of current type I IFN therapies, which limit IFN exposure in the tumor. CD8+ T cell immunity is dependent on IFN signaling in cDC1s and preclinical studies suggest targeting IFN directly to cDC1s may be sufficient to drive anti-tumor immunity. Here, we engineered an anti-XCR1 antibody (Ab) and IFN mutein (IFNmut) fusion protein (XCR1Ab-IFNmut) to determine whether systemic delivery could drive selective and sustained type I IFN signaling in cDC1s leading to anti-tumor activity and, in parallel, reduced systemic toxicity. We found that the XCR1Ab-IFNmut fusion specifically enhanced cDC1 activation in the tumor and spleen compared to an untargeted control IFN. However, multiple treatments with the XCR1Ab-IFNmut fusion resulted in robust anti-drug antibodies (ADA) and loss of drug exposure. Using other cDC1-targeting Ab-IFNmut fusions, we found that localizing IFN directly to cDC1s activates their ability to promote ADA responses, regardless of the cDC1 targeting antigen. The development of ADA remains a major hurdle in immunotherapy drug development and the cellular and molecular mechanisms governing the development of ADA responses in humans is not well understood. Our results reveal a role of cDC1s in ADA generation and highlight the potential ADA challenges with targeting immunostimulatory agents to this cellular compartment.

Phagocytosis increases an oxidative metabolic and immune suppressive signature in tumor macrophages.

Phagocytosis is a key macrophage function, but how phagocytosis shapes tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) phenotypes and heterogeneity in solid tumors remains unclear. Here, we utilized both syngeneic and novel autochthonous lung tumor models in which neoplastic cells express the fluorophore tdTomato (tdTom) to identify TAMs that have phagocytosed neoplastic cells in vivo. Phagocytic tdTompos TAMs upregulated antigen presentation and anti-inflammatory proteins, but downregulated classic proinflammatory effectors compared to tdTomneg TAMs. Single-cell transcriptomic profiling identified TAM subset-specific and common gene expression changes associated with phagocytosis. We uncover a phagocytic signature that is predominated by oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), ribosomal, and metabolic genes, and this signature correlates with worse clinical outcome in human lung cancer. Expression of OXPHOS proteins, mitochondrial content, and functional utilization of OXPHOS were increased in tdTompos TAMs. tdTompos tumor dendritic cells also display similar metabolic changes. Our identification of phagocytic TAMs as a distinct myeloid cell state links phagocytosis of neoplastic cells in vivo with OXPHOS and tumor-promoting phenotypes.

Selective delivery of beta cell antigen to dendritic cells in vivo leads to deletion and tolerance of autoreactive CD8+ T cells in NOD mice.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease resulting from defects in central and peripheral tolerance and characterized by T cell-mediated destruction of islet beta cells. Cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells, reactive to beta cell antigens, are required for T1D development in the NOD mouse model of the disease, and CD8(+) T cells specific for beta cell antigens can be detected in the peripheral blood of T1D patients. It has been evident that in nonautoimmune-prone mice, dendritic cells (DCs) present model antigens in a tolerogenic manner in the steady state, e.g., in the absence of infection, and cause T cells to proliferate initially but then to be deleted or rendered unresponsive. However, this fundamental concept has not been evaluated in the setting of a spontaneous autoimmune disease. To do so, we delivered a mimotope peptide, recognized by the diabetogenic CD8(+) T cell clone AI4, to DCs in NOD mice via the endocytic receptor DEC-205. Proliferation of transferred antigen-specific T cells was initially observed, but this was followed by deletion. Tolerance was achieved because rechallenge of mice with the mimotope peptide in adjuvant did not induce an immune response. Thus, targeting of DCs with beta cell antigens leads to deletion of autoreactive CD8(+) T cells even in the context of ongoing autoimmunity in NOD mice with known tolerance defects. Our results provide support for the development of DC targeting of self antigens for treatment of chronic T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.

CD25+ CD4+ T cells, expanded with dendritic cells presenting a single autoantigenic peptide, suppress autoimmune diabetes.

In the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of type 1 diabetes, the immune system recognizes many autoantigens expressed in pancreatic islet beta cells. To silence autoimmunity, we used dendritic cells (DCs) from NOD mice to expand CD25+ CD4+ suppressor T cells from BDC2.5 mice, which are specific for a single islet autoantigen. The expanded T cells were more suppressive in vitro than their freshly isolated counterparts, indicating that DCs from autoimmune mice can increase the number and function of antigen-specific, CD25+ CD4+ regulatory T cells. Importantly, only 5,000 expanded CD25+ CD4+ BDC2.5 T cells could block autoimmunity caused by diabetogenic T cells in NOD mice, whereas 10(5) polyclonal, CD25+ CD4+ T cells from NOD mice were inactive. When islets were examined in treated mice, insulitis development was blocked at early (3 wk) but not later (11 wk) time points. The expanded CD25+ CD4+ BDC2.5 T cells were effective even if administered 14 d after the diabetogenic T cells. Our data indicate that DCs can generate CD25+ CD4+ T cells that suppress autoimmune disease in vivo. This might be harnessed as a new avenue for immunotherapy, especially because CD25+ CD4+ regulatory cells responsive to a single autoantigen can inhibit diabetes mediated by reactivity to multiple antigens.

CD4(+) T cells from glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)65-specific T cell receptor transgenic mice are not diabetogenic and can delay diabetes transfer.

Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)65 is an early and important antigen in both human diabetes mellitus and the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse. However, the exact role of GAD65-specific T cells in diabetes pathogenesis is unclear. T cell responses to GAD65 occur early in diabetes pathogenesis, yet only one GAD65-specific T cell clone of many identified can transfer diabetes. We have generated transgenic mice on the NOD background expressing a T cell receptor (TCR)-specific for peptide epitope 286-300 (p286) of GAD65. These mice have GAD65-specific CD4(+) T cells, as shown by staining with an I-A(g7)(p286) tetramer reagent. Lymphocytes from these TCR transgenic mice proliferate and make interferon gamma, interleukin (IL)-2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, and IL-10 when stimulated in vitro with GAD65 peptide 286-300, yet these TCR transgenic animals do not spontaneously develop diabetes, and insulitis is virtually undetectable. Furthermore, in vitro activated CD4 T cells from GAD 286 TCR transgenic mice express higher levels of CTL-associated antigen (CTLA)-4 than nontransgenic littermates. CD4(+) T cells, or p286-tetramer(+)CD4(+) Tcells, from GAD65 286-300-specific TCR transgenic mice delay diabetes induced in NOD.scid mice by diabetic NOD spleen cells. This data suggests that GAD65 peptide 286-300-specific T cells have disease protective capacity and are not pathogenic.

Beyond cDC1: Emerging Roles of DC Crosstalk in Cancer Immunity.

Dendritic cells (DCs) efficiently process and present antigens to T cells, and by integrating environmental signals, link innate and adaptive immunity. DCs also control the balance between tolerance and immunity, and are required for T-cell mediated anti-tumor immunity. One subset of classical DCs, cDC1, are particularly important for eliciting CD8 T cells that can kill tumor cells. cDC1s are superior in antigen cross-presentation, a process of presenting exogenous antigens on MHC class I to activate CD8+ T cells. Tumor-associated cDC1s can transport tumor antigen to the draining lymph node and cross-present tumor antigens, resulting in priming and activation of cytotoxic T cells. Although cross-presenting cDC1s are critical for eliciting anti-tumor T cell responses, the role and importance of other DC subsets in anti-tumor immunity is not as well-characterized. Recent literature in other contexts suggests that critical crosstalk between DC subsets can significantly alter biological outcomes, and these DC interactions likely also contribute significantly to tumor-specific immune responses. Therefore, antigen presentation by cDC1s may be necessary but not sufficient for maximal immune responses against cancer. Here, we discuss recent advances in the understanding of DC subset interactions to maximize anti-tumor immunity, and propose that such interactions should be considered for the development of better DC-targeted immunotherapies.