A Comparison of Training Modality and Total Genotype Scores to Enhance Sport-Specific Biomotor Abilities in Under 19 Male Soccer Players.

ABSTRACT: Suraci, BR, Quigley, C, Thelwell, RC, and Milligan, GS. A comparison of training modality and total genotype scores to enhance sport-specific biomotor abilities in under 19 male soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 35(1): 154-161, 2021-Soccer-specific training (SST) and small-sided games (SSGs) have been shown to develop physical proficiency in soccer. Research on genetics and epigenetics in the prescription of training is limited. The aims of this study were to compare the impact of 3 different SST/SSG methods and investigate if a total genotype score (TGS) influences training response. Subjects (n = 30 male soccer players, mean ± SD; age 17.2 ± 0.9 years, stature = 172.6 ± 6.2 cm; body mass = 71.7 ± 10.1 kg) were stratified into a "power" (PG) or "endurance" (EG) gene profile group, where a 15 single nucleotide polymorphism panel was used to produce an algorithmically weighted TGS. Training 1 (T1-SSGs only), training 2 (T2-SSGs/SST), and training 3 (T3-SST only) were completed (in that respective order), lasting 8 weeks each, interspersed by 4-week washouts. Acceleration (10-m sprint) was improved by T2 only (1.84 ± 0.09 seconds vs. 1.73 ± 0.05 seconds; Effect Size [ES] = 1.59, p < 0.001). Speed (30-m sprint) was improved by T2 (4.46 ± 0.22 seconds vs. 4.30 ± 0.19 seconds; ES = 0.81, p < 0.001) and T3 (4.48 ± 0.22 seconds vs. 4.35 ± 0.21 seconds; ES = 0.58, p < 0.001). Agility (T-test) was improved by T1 (10.14 ± 0.40 seconds vs. 9.84 ± 0.42 seconds; ES = 0.73, p < 0.05) and T3 (9.93 ± 0.38 seconds vs. 9.66 ± 0.45 seconds; ES = 0.66, p < 0.001). Endurance (Yo-Yo level 1) was improved by T1 (1,682.22 ± 497.23 m vs. 2,028.89 ± 604.74 m; ES = 0.63, p < 0.05), T2 (1,904.35 ± 526.77 m vs. 2,299.13 ± 606.97 m; ES = 0.69, p < 0.001), and T3 (1,851.76 ± 490.46 m vs. 2,024.35 ± 588.13 m; ES = 0.35, p < 0.05). Power (countermovement jump) was improved by T3 only (36.01 ± 5.73 cm vs. 37.14 ± 5.62 cm; ES = 0.20, p < 0.05). There were no differences in T1, T2, and T3 combined when comparing PG and EG. The PG reported significantly (χ2(20) = 4.42, p = 0.035, ES = 0.48) better training responses to T3 for power than the EG. These results demonstrate the efficacy of SSGs and SSTs in developing biomotor abilities. Although these results refute talent identification through the use of a TGS, there may be use in aligning the training method to TGS to develop power-based qualities in soccer.

Cognitive performance is associated with cerebral oxygenation and peripheral oxygen saturation, but not plasma catecholamines, during graded normobaric hypoxia.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? What are the mechanisms responsible for the decline in cognitive performance following exposure to acute normobaric hypoxia? What are the main findings and their importance? We found that (1) performance of a complex central executive task (n-back) was reduced at FIO2 0.12; (2) there was a strong correlation between performance of the n-back task and reductions in SpO2 and cerebral oxygenation; and (3) plasma adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and copeptin were not correlated with cognitive performance. ABSTRACT: It is well established that hypoxia impairs cognitive function; however, the physiological mechanisms responsible for these effects have received relatively little attention. This study examined the effects of graded reductions in fraction of inspired oxygen ( FIO2 ) on oxygen saturation ( SpO2 ), cerebral oxygenation, cardiorespiratory variables, activity of the sympathoadrenal system (adrenaline, noradrenaline) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (cortisol, copeptin), and cognitive performance. Twelve healthy males [mean (SD), age: 22 (4) years, height: 178 (5) cm, mass: 75 (9) kg, FEV1 /FVC ratio: 85 (5)%] completed a four-task battery of cognitive tests to examine inhibition, selective attention (Eriksen flanker), executive function (n-back) and simple and choice reaction time (Deary-Liewald). Tests were completed before and following 60 min of exposure to FIO2 0.2093, 0.17, 0.145 and 0.12. Following 60 min of exposure, response accuracy in the n-back task was significantly reduced in FIO2 0.12 compared to baseline [82 (9) vs. 93 (5)%; P < 0.001] and compared to all other conditions at the same time point [ FIO2 0.2093: 92 (3)%; FIO2 0.17: 91 (6)%; FIO2 0.145: 85 (10)%; FIO2 12: 82 (9)%; all P < 0.05]. The performance of the other tasks was maintained. Δaccuracy and Δreaction time of the n-back task was correlated with both Δ SpO2 [r(9) = 0.66, P < 0.001 and r(9) = -0.36, P = 0.037, respectively] and Δcerebral oxygenation [r(7) = 0.55, P < 0.001 and r(7) = -0.38, P = 0.045, respectively]. Plasma adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and copeptin were not significantly elevated in any condition or correlated with any of the tests of cognitive performance. These findings suggest that reductions in peripheral oxygen saturation and cerebral oxygenation, and not increased activity of the sympathoadrenal system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, as previously speculated, are responsible for a decrease in cognitive performance during normobaric hypoxia.

Exploring athletes' perceptions of coach stress in elite sport environments.

The present study aimed to extend research that has focused on the identification of stressors associated with coaching practice by systematically evaluating how such stressors effect athletes, and more broadly, the coach-athlete relationship. A total of 13 professional- and national-level athletes were interviewed to address the three study aims: how they detect when a coach is encountering stressors, how coach experiences of stress effects them as an athlete, and how effective the coach is when experiencing stress. Following content analysis, the data suggested athletes were able to detect when a coach was experiencing stress and this was typically via a variety of verbal and behavioural cues. Despite some positive effects of the coach experiencing stress, the majority were negative and varied across a range of personal influences on the athlete, and effects on the general coaching environment. It was also the broad view of the athletes that coaches were less effective when stressed, and this was reflected in performance expectations, perceptions of competence, and lack of awareness. The findings are discussed in relation to the existing theory and with reference to their implications for applied practice, future research, and development of the coach-athlete relationship.

Examining coaches' perceptions of how their stress influences the coach-athlete relationship.

This study extends recent coach stress research by evaluating how coaches perceive their stress experiences to affect athletes, and the broader coach-athlete relationship. A total of 12 coaches working across a range of team sports at the elite level took part in semi-structured interviews to investigate the 3 study aims: how they perceive athletes to detect signals of coach stress; how they perceive their stress experiences to affect athletes; and, how effective they perceive themselves to be when experiencing stress. Following content analysis, data suggested that coaches perceived athletes able to detect when they were experiencing stress typically via communication, behavioural, and stylistic cues. Although coaches perceived their stress to have some positive effects on athletes, the overwhelming effects were negative and affected "performance and development", "psychological and emotional", and "behavioural and interaction" factors. Coaches also perceived themselves to be less effective when stressed, and this was reflected in their perceptions of competence, self-awareness, and coaching quality. An impactful finding is that coaches are aware of how a range of stress responses are expressed by themselves, and to how they affect athletes, and their coaching quality. Altogether, findings support the emerging view that coach stress affects their own, and athlete performance.

Measuring emotional contagion as a multidimensional construct: the development and initial validation of the contagion of affective phenomena scales.

We offer an alternative conceptualization of the construct of susceptibility to emotional contagion and four related studies where two separate measures were developed and initially validated. The Contagion of Affective Phenomena Scale-General (CAPS-G) is a 5-item scale that measures the general susceptibility to the contagion of affect, and the Contagion of Affective Phenomena Scale - Emotion (CAPS-E) assesses six distinct emotions. Study 1 generated items with experts. Study 2 explored and confirmed construct validity and the factorial structure of both measures using exploratory structural equation modeling. Study 3 established test-retest reliability, concurrent validity, and discriminant validity. Study 4 found predictive validity with a sample of competitive swimmers. In four separate samples, a 21-item and 6-factor first-order structure of CAPS-E provided the best model fit. We provide initial evidence that supports the use of CAPS-E and CAPS-G as reliable and valid measures of the susceptibility to contagion of affective phenomena.

The effects of sleep deprivation, acute hypoxia, and exercise on cognitive performance: A multi-experiment combined stressors study.

INTRODUCTION: Both sleep deprivation and hypoxia have been shown to impair executive function. Conversely, moderate intensity exercise is known to improve executive function. In a multi-experiment study, we tested the hypotheses that moderate intensity exercise would ameliorate any decline in executive function after i) three consecutive nights of partial sleep deprivation (PSD) (Experiment 1) and ii) the isolated and combined effects of a single night of total sleep deprivation (TSD) and acute hypoxia (Experiment 2). METHODS: Using a rigorous randomised controlled crossover design, 12 healthy participants volunteered in each experiment (24 total, 5 females). In both experiments seven executive function tasks (2-choice reaction time, logical relations, manikin, mathematical processing, 1-back, 2-back, 3-back) were completed at rest and during 20 min semi-recumbent, moderate intensity cycling. Tasks were completed in the following conditions: before and after three consecutive nights of PSD and habitual sleep (Experiment 1) and in normoxia and acute hypoxia (FIO2 = 0.12) following one night of habitual sleep and one night of TSD (Experiment 2). RESULTS: Although the effects of three nights of PSD on executive functions were inconsistent, one night of TSD (regardless of hypoxic status) reduced executive functions. Significantly, regardless of sleep or hypoxic status, executive functions are improved during an acute bout of moderate intensity exercise. CONCLUSION: These novel data indicate that moderate intensity exercise improves executive function performance after both PSD and TSD, regardless of hypoxic status. The key determinants and/or mechanism(s) responsible for this improvement still need to be elucidated. Future work should seek to identify these mechanisms and translate these significant findings into occupational and skilled performance settings.

Color of soccer goalkeepers' uniforms influences the outcome of penalty kicks.

This study examined the proposition that competing against red-clad opponents hinders the performance of soccer (football) athletes. 40 experienced players took 10 penalty kicks against a goalkeeper wearing a black jersey and, 1 week later, took 10 penalty kicks against a goalkeeper wearing either a red, green, blue, or yellow jersey. Prior to each set of kicks, participants reported their expectancy of success. Players facing red-clad goalkeepers scored on fewer penalty kicks than those facing either blue- or green-clad goalkeepers, but no differences in expectancy of success emerged. The findings indicate that athletes wearing red may have an advantage over their opponents.

How older adults are perceived is influenced by their reported exercise status.

Nelson (2002) proposed that ageism occurs as a result of the negative perceptions individuals have of older adults. This study examined whether information about an older person's exercise habits would influence such perceptions. Participants (N = 1,230) from 3 age categories (16-25, 26-55, and 56+ yr) read a description of a 65-year-old man or woman describing 1 of 7 exercise statuses. Participants rated their perceptions of 13 aspects of the target's personality. A 3-way (Target Exercise Status × Target Gender × Participant Age) MANOVA revealed significant main effects for target exercise status. Nonexercisers were perceived less positively than the control target and the exercising targets. The results suggest that there are self-presentational costs associated with being a nonexerciser at an older age, but few self-presentation benefits accrued to older adults who engage in regular exercise.

Psychological skills training improves exercise performance in the heat.

INTRODUCTION: Fatigue occurs earlier when working at corresponding exercise intensities in hot compared with cool conditions. Psychological skills training (PST) can modify the responses evoked by thermal stimuli such as the respiratory responses on immersion to cold water. This study tested the hypothesis that a 4-d PST package would significantly increase the distance covered during 90 min of running in the heat. METHOD: Eighteen subjects completed three maximal-effort runs (R1, R2, R3) of 90 min in the heat (30 degrees C; 40% RH). After R2, subjects were matched and randomly allocated to either a control group (CG) or psychological skills group (PSG). Between R2 and R3, the CG (N = 8) continued their normal activities, and the PSG (N = 10) received PST to help them tolerate unpleasant sensations arising from exercising in the heat, and to suppress the temptation to lower their work intensity. Key measures include distance covered, .VO2, skin (T(sk)) and aural temperature (T(au)), RPE, sweat production and evaporation, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and prolactin (PRL) in whole blood. RESULTS: The distances covered in the CG did not differ between runs. In the PSG, there were no differences in the distance run between R1 and R2, but they ran significantly farther in R3 (8%; 1.15 km); there were no between-group differences. There were no significant differences between R1 and R3 in peak T(au), T(sk), sweat volumes, IL-6, and PRL (P > 0.05) in either group. CONCLUSION: PST suppressed the temptation to reduce exercise intensity during R3. It is concluded that PST can improve running performance in the heat. The precise mechanisms underpinning these improvements are unclear; however, their implications for unblinded experimental design are not.

Breath-hold time during cold water immersion: effects of habituation with psychological training.

INTRODUCTION: The loss of the conscious control of respiration on whole body cold water immersion (CWI) can result in the aspiration of water and drowning. Repeated CWI reduces the respiratory drive evoked by CWI and should prolong breath-hold time on CWI (BHmax(CWI)). Psychological skills training (PST) can also increase BHmax(CWI) by improving the ability of individuals to consciously suppress the drive to breathe. This study tested the hypothesis that combining PST and repeated CWI would extend BHmax(CWI) beyond that seen following only repeated CWI. METHODS: There were 20 male subjects who completed two 2.5-min, head-out breath-hold CWI (BH1 and BH2) in water at 12 degrees C. Following BH1, subjects were matched on BHmax(CWI) and allocated to a habituation (HAB) group or a habituation plus PST group (H+PST). Between BH1 and BH2 both experimental groups undertook five 2.5-min CWI on separate days, during which they breathed freely. The H+PST also received psychological training to help tolerate cold and suppress the drive to breathe on immersion to extend BHmax(CWI). RESULTS: During BH1, mean BHmax(CWI) (+/- SD) in the HAB group was 22.00 (10.33) s and 22.38 (10.65) s in the H+PST. After the five free-breathing CWI, both groups had a longer BHmax(CWI) in BH2. The HAB group improved by 14.13 (20.21) s, an increase of 73%. H+PST improved by 26.86 (24.70) s, a 120% increase. No significant differences were identified between the groups. CONCLUSION: Habituation significantly increases BHmax on CWI, the addition of PST did not result in statistically significant improvements in BHmax(CWI), but may have practical significance.

Breath-hold performance during cold water immersion: effects of psychological skills training.

INTRODUCTION: Accidental cold water immersion (CWI) is a significant cause of death, particularly in those who are immersed in rough water or forcibly submerged such as in a ditched and inverted helicopter. The marked reduction in maximal breath-hold time associated with CWI, part of the 'cold shock' response, significantly increases the risk of drowning. However, the response is highly variable between subjects. This experiment tested the hypothesis that part of this variability is due to psychological factors. METHODS: There were 32 subjects who completed 2 2.5-min, head-out immersions in 11 degrees C water, separated by 7 d. Between immersions, subjects were matched on initial maximum breath-hold time on immersion (BHwater) and allocated to either a psychological intervention group (PIG) or control group (CG). PIG (n=16) subjects each undertook a psychological skills intervention comprising 4 interlinked training sessions covering goal-setting, arousal regulation, mental imagery, and positive self-talk; CG (n=16) continued normal daily activity. RESULTS: Psychological intervention significantly increased BHwater on immersion in the PIG vs. the CG [mean (SD); CG BHwater immersion 1:24.01 (6.72) s; immersion 2: 21.34 (16.31) s; PIG: BHwater immersion 1: 24.66 (14.60) s; immersion 2: 44.25 (31.63) s]. The difference in maximum voluntary BHwater between immersion 1 and 2 in the PIG averaged 19.59 s, equating to an 80% increase following psychological intervention. CONCLUSION: Psychological influences may account for a significant amount of the variability in the respiratory responses during CWI, and may be a key factor in determining the chances of survival following accidental immersion.

Relation of game location and experience on mood states.

The study investigated relationships between game location, performers' experience, and mood states. 31 experienced collegiate soccer players completed the Brunel Mood Scale to assess anger, calmness, confusion, depression, fatigue, happiness, tension, and vigor before eight competitive games (four home and four away). Participants were categorized into Experienced and Less Experienced groups, based on the level of performance at which they played. Repeated-measures multivariate analyses of variance compared mean mood scores across location and experience, and follow-up univariate analyses suggested the increase in mood scores on Tension and decrease in scores on Calmness, Happiness, and Vigor between playing away and at home were significantly greater for Less experienced soccer players than Experienced players. Implications of these findings for the applied practitioner are discussed.

Improvement of 10-km time-trial cycling with motivational self-talk compared with neutral self-talk.

PURPOSE: Unpleasant physical sensations during maximal exercise may manifest themselves as negative cognitions that impair performance, alter pacing, and are linked to increased rating of perceived exertion (RPE). This study examined whether motivational self-talk (M-ST) could reduce RPE and change pacing strategy, thereby enhancing 10-km time-trial (TT) cycling performance in contrast to neutral self-talk (N-ST). METHODS: Fourteen men undertook 4 TTs, TT1-TT4. After TT2, participants were matched into groups based on TT2 completion time and underwent M-ST (n=7) or N-ST (n=7) after TT3. Performance, power output, RPE, and oxygen uptake (VO2) were compared across 1-km segments using ANOVA. Confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated for performance data. RESULTS: After TT3 (ie, before intervention), completion times were not different between groups (M-ST, 1120±113 s; N-ST, 1150±110 s). After M-ST, TT4 completion time was faster (1078±96 s); the N-ST remained similar (1165±111 s). The M-ST group achieved this through a higher power output and VO2 in TT4 (6th-10th km). RPE was unchanged. CI data indicated the likely true performance effect lay between 13- and 71-s improvement (TT4 vs TT3). CONCLUSION: M-ST improved endurance performance and enabled a higher power output, whereas N-ST induced no change. The VO2 response matched the increase in power output, yet RPE was unchanged, thereby inferring a perceptual benefit through M-ST. The valence and content of self-talk are important determinants of the efficacy of this intervention. These findings are primarily discussed in the context of the psychobiological model of pacing.

Stressors in elite sport: a coach perspective.

We examined the varying performance and organizational stressors experienced by coaches who operate with elite athletes. Following interviews with eleven coaches, content analysis of the data revealed coaches to experience comparable numbers of performance and organizational stressors. Performance stressors were divided between their own performance and that of their athletes, while organizational stressors included environmental, leadership, personal, and team factors. The findings provide evidence that coaches experience a variety of stressors that adds weight to the argument that they should be labelled as "performers" in their own right. A variety of future research topics and applied issues are also discussed.