THREE CASES OF CLINICAL LEPTOSPIROSIS IN PATAGONIAN MARAS (DOLICHOTIS PATAGONUM).

Rodents are typically viewed as asymptomatic reservoirs for leptospirosis infection, as clinical disease in rodents is rarely described. This report includes three separate cases of leptospirosis in Patagonian maras (Dolichotis patagonum) over a 3-yr period in multiple locations within a single zoo. All three cases presented with varying clinical signs including lethargy, conjunctival hyperemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and presumed renal azotemia. Infection with Leptospira spp. was diagnosed antemortem by PCR on whole blood (n = 1, Case 1) or urine (n = 2, Cases 2 and 3). Leptospira antibody titers measured by serum microagglutination testing (n = 3) were elevated or increased in all three animals over a 1-3-wk period for Leptospira serovars Bratislava and Hardjo (Case 1) and Grippotyphosa (Case 2 and 3). Two of the three animals responded to treatment with penicillin and doxycycline and supportive care, whereas one animal did not respond to treatment. Postmortem findings in this individual included conjunctivitis, chemosis, dehydration, icterus, tricavitary serosanguinous effusions, necrotizing hepatitis, diffuse pulmonary congestion, and edema. Immunohistochemical examination identified scattered Leptospira organisms within hepatocytes and renal tubular epithelial cells. A wild raccoon (Procyon lotor) at the institution tested positive by PCR on kidney tissue for the same Leptospira spp. serovar and was the suspected source of infection. This case series highlights the clinical importance of leptospirosis as a differential for Patagonian maras presenting with lethargy, ocular signs, acute hepatic disease, and azotemia.

Serial ultrasonographic measurements of fetal parameters over three successive pregnancies in a captive Eastern black-and-white colobus monkey (Colobus guereza).

This study provides ultrasonographic fetal growth charts for the Eastern black-and-white colobus monkey (Colobus guereza). Throughout three consecutive gestations (-162 to -2 days to parturition) in a single dam, we opportunistically obtained ultrasonographic measurements for the following parameters: biparietal diameter, head circumference, humerus length, femur length, tibia length, radius length, thoracic width, kidney length, and crown-rump length. Biparietal diameter was the most consistently measured parameter. First detection of fetuses occurred between 96 and 162 days before parturition. This report demonstrates that voluntary transabdominal ultrasound can be well-tolerated in the colobus monkey using operant conditioning. These findings may be useful to assess fetal development and predict parturition dates in the absence of a known conception date in this species.

ANESTHESIA OF ZOO-MANAGED AFRICAN PAINTED DOGS (LYCAON PICTUS) USING A DEXMEDETOMIDINE-KETAMINEBUTORPHANOL-MIDAZOLAM COMBINATION.

Zoo-managed adult African painted dogs (Lycaon pictus; n = 17) were anesthetized with mean dosages of dexmedetomidine 5 µg/kg, ketamine 1.93 mg/kg, butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg, and midazolam 0.15 mg/kg IM. Times to induction milestones (mean ± SD or median [range]) were initial effects at 2 min (1-4 min), recumbency at 3.2 ± 1.1 min, and intubation at 11.6 ± 1.3 min. Two dogs required isoflurane supplementation for intubation. Anesthesia was antagonized with mean dosages of atipamezole 0.05 mg/kg IM, naltrexone 0.2 mg/kg IM, and flumazenil 0.01 mg/kg IV. Times from antagonist administration to recovery milestones were extubation at 3.9 ± 1.5 min, control of head at 7.6 ± 2.5 min, sternal positioning at 8.8 ± 2.3 min, and standing at 12.1 ± 3.5 min. Animals were judged ready for reunification with conspecifics at 41.5 min (28-127 min), and reunification occurred at 62.1 ± 35.2 min. Paired arterial blood gas samples were obtained (n = 13). There was a significant decrease in temperature and blood pressure and increase in pO2, BEecf, and HCO3- (P < 0.05). Decreased respiratory rate with hypercapnia was occasionally observed. This protocol provided consistent anesthesia using a low dose α-2 agonist and permitted quick pack reunification.

DEGENERATIVE CARDIAC DISEASE IN TWO SPECIES OF TORTOISE (CHELONOIDIS NIGRA COMPLEX, CENTROCHELYS SULCATA).

Cardiac lesions in tortoises are incompletely described in the literature. This retrospective case series includes 11 cases of degenerative cardiac disease in young tortoises from two species in human care: Galápagos tortoise complex (Chelonoidis nigra complex) (n = 9) and sulcata tortoises (Centrochelys sulcata) (n = 2). Eight tortoises were male, two were female, and sex was undetermined for one individual. The age range at the time of death was 10-32 yr with a mean of 19 yr. The most common clinical signs noted prior to death were peripheral edema, lethargy, and inappetence. Common necropsy findings included generalized edema and pericardial effusion. All cases had ventricular myocardial fibrosis and several cases had epicardial adhesions. Additional common findings included hepatic lesions (hepatic lipidosis, hepatic fibrosis, and hepatitis) and pulmonary lesions (pulmonary edema, pulmonary fibrosis, and pneumocytic hypertrophy). A definitive cause for degenerative cardiac disease was not identified in this case series, but the young age distribution of the tortoises suggests that inappropriate environmental parameters, husbandry, and diet should be investigated as possible underlying contributing factors.

Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in Mexican Wolf Pups at Zoo, Michigan, USA.

During the 2019 Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) outbreak in Michigan, two 2-month old Mexican wolf pups experienced neurologic signs, lymphohistiocytic neutrophilic meningoencephalitis with neuronal necrosis and neuronophagia, and acute death. We identified EEEV by reverse transcription real-time PCR and in situ hybridization. Vector mosquitoes were trapped at the zoo.

Atypical Brucella inopinata-Like Species in 2 Marine Toads.

We describe the isolation of atypical Brucella inopinata-like species and unique clinicopathologic findings in 2 adult marine toads (Rhinella marina), including oophoritis in 1 toad. These findings represent a novel emerging disease in toads and a possible zoonotic pathogen.

VALIDATION OF CHEMILUMINESCENT ASSAY FOR CANINE THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE IN RED PANDAS (AILURUS FULGENS FULGENS).

Thyroid abnormalities have been anecdotally reported in red pandas (Ailurus fulgens fulgens); however, definitive diagnosis is hampered by a lack of established reference ranges and validated diagnostic tests. The chemiluminescent assay for canine thyroid stimulating hormone (cTSH) has been validated for use in domestic canids and felids. This study aims to validate the cTSH assay for use in red pandas. Validation was performed via serial dilutions of banked serum samples (n = 15) and both inter- and intra-assay testing. High estimated recoveries and low coefficients of variability indicate that the cTSH assay accurately and consistently measures TSH concentrations in red panda serum. Further studies to generate red panda age and sex TSH reference ranges are indicated.

PRESUMPTIVE CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM IN RED PANDAS (AILURUS FULGENS FULGENS) FROM FOUR SUCCESSIVE LITTERS.

High neonatal mortality among red pandas (Ailurus fulgens) challenges the long-term sustainability of the Species Survival Plan population. Congenital hypothyroidism (CH) is a rare condition in domestic animals, typically due to an inherited genetic defect. Nongoitrous CH was presumptively diagnosed in 75% (n = 6/8) of red panda neonates from four successive litters, with a common sire and two closely related dams. Antemortem diagnosis of CH was made in three cubs (n = 3/6) based on elevated thyroid stimulating hormone and decreased free thyroxine and total thyroxine levels. Affected cubs also had suggestive clinical signs, which included delayed growth with cretinous dwarf appearance, atonic bladder, delayed gastrointestinal motility, hypercholesterolemia, and hypocalcemia. With sodium levothyroxine therapy, two of the three cubs developed into normal adult red pandas in terms of body size, appearance, and behavior. On necropsy cubs (n = 4) were small with varying degrees of cretin dwarf appearance and hypoplastic thyroids with reduced to no colloid in follicles. These cases demonstrate the importance of collecting thyroid tissue, (or proximal trachea/larynx if gross visualization not possible), in neonates for histopathology. Further investigation into the role of thyroid disease in neonatal red panda mortality is warranted.

Successful Return to Active Duty after First Rib Resection for Thoracic Outlet Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The optimal surgical approach and treatment algorithm for thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) remain controversial. We sought to examine the outcomes of patients treated at a military medical treatment facility (MTF) for TOS. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed on all patients who had a first rib resection (FRR) for TOS over a 9-year period at a single MTF. Patient demographics, perioperative details, and patient outcomes were examined. Active duty (AD) status and return to AD were reviewed. RESULTS: From 2008 to 2016, 33 FRRs were performed in 32 patients. Of these, 30 patients were on AD with a mean age of 27 years (range, 19-44). The 29 male and 4 female patients were treated for symptoms of venous (23), neurogenic (6), or arterial (4) TOS. The mean time from onset of symptoms was 11 months (range, 1 to 120). The FRR was performed via a transaxillary (13), supraclavicular (12), or paraclavicular (8) approach. Of 21 AD patients with venous TOS, 16 (76%) underwent preoperative thrombolysis. A postoperative venogram or ultrasound was performed in 20 patients, documenting vein patency in 18 (90%). Nine patients underwent subsequent venoplasty or stent placement. Most patients (15) were placed on anticoagulation for 1-6 months. Two AD patients had perioperative complications including a lymph leak and brachial plexus palsy. Twenty-four (89%) patients returned to AD status. One recruit never returned to AD after successful FRR, and two other patients did not return for medical reasons unrelated to the FRR. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a variety of surgical approaches and often delayed presentation, we identified a high percentage of postoperative vein patency and return to AD status in our population. The debate over surgical approach remains; however, a multimodal approach individualized to the patient's presentation and meticulous surgical technique led to successful outcomes in our healthy military population.

VALIDATION OF IMMUNOCRIT AS A DIAGNOSTIC TEST TO DETECT FAILURE OF PASSIVE TRANSFER OF IMMUNITY IN HAND-REARED NONDOMESTIC RUMINANT NEONATES.

Domestic and nondomestic ruminant neonates with failure of passive transfer of immunity (FPI) have an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Hand-reared individuals often have a higher incidence of FPI compared with those that are dam-reared. Hand-reared, nondomestic ruminant neonates raised at zoological establishments are often fed a commercially available bovine colostrum replacer. Consequently, it is desirable to monitor for FPI using a single test that performs well across a wide range of species. The immunocrit test method has been reported to have acceptable diagnostic sensitivity for detecting FPI in dairy calves. Advantages of the immunocrit are that it is inexpensive, quick, easy to perform, non-species-specific, and only precipitates immunoglobulins. This study evaluated the ability of immunocrit to predict serum immunoglobulin levels and FPI via comparison with radial immunodiffusion (reference method). The study used 100 serum samples collected from hand-reared ruminant neonates from 29 nondomestic species, 12-120 hr old, that were fed a commercial bovine colostrum replacer at a zoological institution. Sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios for FPI were determined using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. The immunocrit cutoff point of 14% maximized sensitivity at 88.6% (95% CI, 78.7-94.9%) and specificity at 83.3% (95% CI, 65.3-94.4%). The area under the ROC curve was 0.92 (95% CI, 0.87-0.98; P < 0.001). This research demonstrates that the immunocrit test has acceptable performance in detecting FPI in a wide variety of nondomestic hand-reared ruminant neonates. Use of the immunocrit test will help improve the identification of FPI neonates and aid in the management of colostrum feeding practices of nondomestic ruminant species in captivity.

The Multi-Axial Failure Response of Porcine Trabecular Skull Bone Estimated Using Microstructural Simulations.

The development of a multi-axial failure criterion for trabecular skull bone has many clinical and biological implications. This failure criterion would allow for modeling of bone under daily loading scenarios that typically are multi-axial in nature. Some yield criteria have been developed to evaluate the failure of trabecular bone, but there is a little consensus among them. To help gain deeper understanding of multi-axial failure response of trabecular skull bone, we developed 30 microstructural finite element models of porous porcine skull bone and subjected them to multi-axial displacement loading simulations that spanned three-dimensional (3D) stress and strain space. High-resolution microcomputed tomography (microCT) scans of porcine trabecular bone were obtained and used to develop the meshes used for finite element simulations. In total, 376 unique multi-axial loading cases were simulated for each of the 30 microstructure models. Then, results from the total of 11,280 simulations (approximately 135,360 central processing unit-hours) were used to develop a mathematical expression, which describes the average three-dimensional yield surface in strain space. Our results indicate that the yield strain of porcine trabecular bone under multi-axial loading is nearly isotropic and despite a spread of yielding points between the 30 different microstructures, no significant relationship between the yield strain and bone volume fraction is observed. The proposed yield equation has simple format and it can be implemented into a macroscopic model for the prediction of failure of whole bones.

Biomechanical Evaluations of Ocular Injury Risk for Blast Loading.

Ocular trauma is one of the most common types of combat injuries resulting from the exposure of military personnel with improvised explosive devices. The injury mechanism associated with the primary blast wave is poorly understood. We employed a three-dimensional computational model, which included the main internal ocular structures of the eye, spatially varying thickness of the cornea-scleral shell, and nonlinear tissue properties, to calculate the intraocular pressure and stress state of the eye wall and internal ocular structure caused by the blast. The intraocular pressure and stress magnitudes were applied to estimate the injury risk using existing models for blunt impact and blast loading. The simulation results demonstrated that blast loading can induce significant stresses in the different components of the eyes that correlate with observed primary blast injuries in animal studies. Different injury models produced widely different injury risk predictions, which highlights the need for experimental studies evaluating mechanical and functional damage to the ocular structures caused by the blast loading.

OBSTETRICAL AND POSTPARTUM COMPLICATIONS IN LESSER MADAGASCAR HEDGEHOG TENRECS (ECHINOPS TELFAIRI): FOUR CASES.

Currently, little is known about diseases and health concerns in tenrecs, family Tenrecidae. During the past 10 yr of breeding lesser Madagascar hedgehog tenrecs ( Echinops telfairi ) at a single zoological institution, a diverse range of obstetric and postpartum complications have been observed: pyometra, metritis, retained fetal membranes, retained fetus, perinatal mortality, and maternal neglect with subsequent successful hand-rearing of neonates. Treatment of these problems is complicated in tenrecs because of their small size and secretive behavior. Some of the cases reported in this article had successful resolution by ovariohysterectomy or cesarean section. The four cases described in this report overall help to disseminate options and outcomes for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of obstetric and postpartum complications in this small, secretive, nondomestic species.

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF A UNILATERAL RENAL CYSTADENOMA IN AN AFRICAN LION (PANTHERA LEO).

A renal tubular cystadenoma was diagnosed in a 14-yr-old male African lion (Panthera leo). During a routine health evaluation, a left renal mass was identified via physical examination, radiographs, and abdominal ultrasonography. The mass was 30 × 15 cm in size and had a thin capsule with central hypoechoic fluid, suggestive of a perirenal cyst. An exploratory celiotomy with partial nephrectomy was performed without complications. Histologically, the tumor was characterized by a thick fibrous capsule surrounding multiple, variable-sized cysts that markedly compressed the adjacent fibrotic and atrophied renal cortex. Immunohistochemical labeling for Aquaporin-1 and Tamm-Horsfall protein was consistent with a renal tubular cystadenoma of proximal tubule origin. Renal cystadenomas are an uncommon benign epithelial neoplasm. There are only two documented case reports in domestic cats. This report represents the first documentation, to the authors' knowledge, of a renal cystadenoma in a lion.

TREATMENT OF RENAL CARCINOMA IN A BINTURONG (ARCTICTIS BINTURONG) WITH NEPHRECTOMY AND A TYROSINE KINASE INHIBITOR.

A 13-yr-old female binturong ( Arctictis binturong ) presented with a 1 wk history of decreased appetite. The animal was thin, with hypercalcemia (calcium 12.2 mg/dl). A right renal mass was identified on ultrasound and removed via nephrectomy. Histopathology indicated a renal adenocarcinoma. Treatment with toceranib phosphate, a tyrosine-kinase inhibitor, was initiated and well tolerated by the animal. Four months after initial diagnosis radiographs indicated metastases to the lungs and the animal was euthanized. Necropsy revealed disseminated adenocarcinoma. Although treatment did not prevent metastasis, it was minimally invasive and well tolerated by the animal with minimal side effects. Review of records at the institution revealed that the cause of death for the primary case's dam and sire was disseminated renal carcinoma. These cases suggest that there may be a hereditary component to development of renal neoplasia in binturongs. Renal carcinoma should be considered an aggressive neoplasia in binturongs with a poor prognosis.

BILATERALLY SYMMETRICAL ORAL AMELANOTIC MELANOMA IN A BOA CONSTRICTOR (BOA CONSTRICTOR CONSTRICTOR).

A 17-yr-old boa constrictor (Boa constrictor constrictor) presented initially with diffuse gingival swelling, loose teeth, and loss of body condition. Examination under anesthesia revealed two firm pink masses within the oral cavity. The largest mass was removed for biopsy. Histopathology and Melan-A-positive immunohistochemistry labeling confirmed a diagnosis of amelanotic melanoma. Secondary stomatitis was treated with antibiotics to improve quality of life, but the snake's condition deteriorated quickly over the next 2 mo. Euthanasia was elected and a gross postmortem examination was performed. Gross postmortem examination and histopathology results demonstrated that the neoplastic cells had spread in an unusual symmetrical pattern along all four dental arcades: the right and left sides of both the mandible and maxilla. Histopathology confirmed metastasis throughout the liver and spleen, despite the lack of gross lesions.

ANTEMORTEM DIAGNOSIS OF CYSTIC ENDOMETRIAL HYPERPLASIA AND SUCCESSFUL OVARIOHYSTERECTOMY IN AN AFRICAN WARTHOG (PHACOCHOERUS AFRICANUS).

During a routine geriatric examination on a 9-yr-old, nulliparous female African warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), a severely enlarged, mixed echogenicity uterus was discovered during transabdominal ultrasound. Ovariohysterectomy (OVH) was elected and performed due to concern for a potential neoplastic condition. Postoperatively, the warthog was treated prophylactically with metoclopramide and ranitidine to promote gastrointestinal motility and prevent postoperative ileus. The gross appearance and histopathology confirmed the presence of extensive widely disseminated cystic changes consistent with cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) and multiple para-ovarian cysts. Uterine pathology, including CEH, is a common condition in domestic potbellied pigs (Sus scrofa), and as a result, it is recommended to perform an OVH at an early age. The advanced uterine changes may have accounted for this animal's history of infertility. This case provides evidence that nulliparity may be associated with the development of uterine pathology in warthogs. Increased knowledge of reproductive pathology will aid in improved management strategies for breeding nondomestic suids.

Gastrolithiasis in prehensile-tailed porcupines (Coendou prehensilis): nine cases and pathogenesis of stone formation.

Gastrolithiasis was diagnosed in nine prehensile-tailed (PT) porcupines (Coendou prehensilis) housed at six zoologic institutions in the United States and Canada. Affected animals were either asymptomatic or had clinical signs, including weight loss, diarrhea, and depression. Abdominal palpation was adequate for diagnosis in all six antemortem cases, and radiographs confirmed a soft tissue density mass effect produced by the concretion. These gastroliths were all successfully surgically removed. Recurrence of gastrolith formation was common and occurred in four of the cases. Three cases were diagnosed postmortem, with the gastrolith causing gastric perforation in one case. Gastroliths from four cases were identified by mass spectrometry as bile acid precipitates consisting of the insoluble acid form of endogenous glycine-conjugated bile acids.

Evaluation of a commercial bovine colostrum replacer for achieving passive transfer of immunity in springbok calves (Antidorcas marsupialis).

Failure of passive transfer (FPT) occurs in ruminant species when there is inadequate absorption of immunoglobulins from the colostrum. In zoologic establishments, FPT can be a common occurrence in hand-raised ruminant neonates fed insufficient amounts of colostrum replacer (CR) and/or poor-quality CR. The goals of this study were to investigate the efficacy of a commercial bovine CR at achieving adequate passive transfer of immunity and evaluate tests to assess FPT in nondomestic ruminant species. In the past several years, research in dairy calves has shown that passive transfer rates can be dramatically improved if the CR dose is doubled. The treatment group (n = 10) consisted of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) calves fed Land O'Lakes bovine commercial CR at a dose of > or = 4.68 g of immunoglobulin G (22 g of CR powder) per kilogram of animal's body weight divided into five feedings over 24 hr. The control group (n=7) consisted of calves that nursed from their dams. This study reported no significant difference between the proportion of calves with adequate passive transfer in the treatment (80%) and control (71%) groups (P= 1.00). Morbidity and mortality rates until weaning were 0% in both groups. The study also determined the sensitivity and specificity values (n = 37) for five serum tests (y-glutamyl-transferase [GGT], globulin, glutaraldehyde coagulation [GC], sodium sulfite turbidity test, and total protein) used to determine passive transfer status in springbok calves. This study recommends the following serum tests and cutoff ranges for determining FPT in springbok calves: globulin < or = 1.85 mg/dl, GGT < or = 228.5 IU/ L, and GC > or = 28 min.

Pathology in Practice.

In collaboration with the American College of Veterinary Pathologists.