Cerebrospinal Fluid Cytokine and Chemokine Profiles in Central Nervous System Sarcoidosis: Diagnostic and Immunopathologic Insights.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokine/chemokine profile of central nervous system (CNS) neurosarcoidosis (NS), and its utility in differential diagnosis, treatment, and prognostication. METHODS: In this case-control study, we validated 17 cytokines/chemokines (interleukin [IL]-1-beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, IL-17A, BAFF, IL-8/CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL13, GM-CSF, interferon-gamma, and tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-alpha) in a multiplexed automated immunoassay system (ELLA; Bio-Techne, Minneapolis, MN, USA), and assessed them in CSF and serum of symptomatic patients with probable or definite CNS NS (01/2011-02/2023) with gadolinium enhancement and/or CSF pleocytosis. Patients with multiple sclerosis, primary CNS lymphoma, aquaporin-4 immunoglobulin G positivity, non-inflammatory disorders, and healthy individuals were used as controls. RESULTS: A total of 32 NS patients (59% women; median age, 59 years [19-81]) were included; concurrent sera were available in 12. CSF controls consisted of 26 multiple sclerosis, 8 primary CNS lymphoma, 84 aquaporin-4 immunoglobulin G positive, and 34 patients with non-inflammatory disorders. Gadolinium enhancement was present in 31 of 32 NS patients, and CSF pleocytosis in 27 of 32 (84%). CSF IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-13, BAFF, IL-8/CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL13, GM-CSF, interferon-gamma, and TNF-alpha levels were significantly higher in NS patients compared with non-inflammatory controls (p ≤ 0.02); elevations were more common in CSF than serum. Concurrent elevation of IL-6, CXCL9, CXCL10, GM-CSF, interferon-gamma, and TNF-alpha was present in 18 of 32 NS patients, but only in 1 control. Elevated IL-6, IL-10, IL-13, CXCL9, CXL10, GM-CSF, and TNF-alpha associated with measures of disease activity. INTERPRETATION: NS CSF cytokine/chemokine profiles suggest T cell (mainly T helper cell type 1), macrophage, and B-cell involvement. These signatures aid in NS diagnosis, indicate disease activity, and suggest therapeutic avenues. ANN NEUROL 2024.

BRAF V600E is associated with higher incidence of second cancers in adults with Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

In this retrospective study, BRAF mutation status did not correlate with disease extent or (event-free) survival in 156 adults with Langerhans cell histiocytosis. BRAFV600E was associated with an increased incidence of second malignancies, often comprising hematological cancers, which may be clonally related.

Ophthalmologic Involvement in Adults with Histiocytic Disorders: Clinical Presentation and Treatment Outcomes.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the clinical presentation, treatment, and outcomes in adult patients with histiocytic disorders with ocular, orbital, optic nerve, or cavernous sinus involvement. DESIGN: Observational, retrospective chart review. PARTICIPANTS: Adult patients (age ≥ 18 years) at Mayo Clinic from January 1, 1996, to July 1, 2021, with histiocytic disorders. Inclusion criteria were (1) histiocytic disorder by biopsy and appropriate clinical phenotype; (2) available medical records; and (3) ocular, orbital, optic nerve, or cavernous sinus involvement. METHODS: Retrospective chart review. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Response to therapy, measured in clinical and radiographic impact. RESULTS: Thirty-two patients were identified: 7 with Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH); 15 with Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD); 1 with mixed LCH/ECD phenotype; 8 with Rosai-Dorfman disease (RDD); and 1 with mixed RDD/ECD phenotype. Ophthalmologic involvement was part of the initial presentation in 69% of patients (22/32). Eyelid edema (13/32, 41%) and proptosis (12/32, 38%) were the most frequent presentations. Isolated orbital or cavernous sinus involvement was present in 3 of 7 patients with LCH and 1 of 8 patients with RDD. Optic nerve sheath involvement was present in 2 of 7 LCH patients, 14 of 15 ECD patients, and 1 RDD/ECD patient. Diffuse (> 75%) orbital involvement was seen in 12 of 15 ECD patients and 1 of 7 LCH patients. Ocular involvement was seen in 1 of 15 ECD patients, 6 of 8 RDD patients, and 1 of 1 mixed RDD/ECD patient. The cavernous sinuses were involved in 1 of 7 LCH patients, 5 of 15 ECD patients, and both mixed phenotype patients. Visual acuity was affected in 14 patients (14/24, 58%) with a median logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution visual acuity of 0.1 (range, -0.12 to 3). BRAF V600E mutations were found in 75% (3/4) of LCH patients and 91% (10/11) of ECD patients. Patients received a variety of treatment, and response was variable across disease types. CONCLUSIONS: Orbital involvement was more commonly seen in LCH and ECD, whereas ocular involvement was more common in RDD. Visual acuity may be impacted from ocular involvement or compression of the optic nerve with diffuse orbital involvement.

Neurological Manifestations of Histiocytic Disorders.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Histiocytic disorders, including Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD), Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH), and Rosai-Dorfman disease (RDD), are rare neoplasms that may present with a spectrum of neurologic involvement. Diagnostic delay is common due to heterogeneity in presentation and challenging pathology. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent advances in the treatment of these diseases targeted towards mutations in the MAP kinase pathway have led to an improved prognosis in these patients with neurologic involvement. It is critical for clinicians to have a high index of suspicion to allow for early targeted treatment and optimize neurologic outcomes. A systematic approach to diagnosis is presented in this article to allow for accurate diagnosis of these rare diseases.

Impact of a Multidisciplinary Tumor Board on the Care of Patients with Histiocytic Disorders: The Histiocytosis Working Group experience.

INTRODUCTION: Histiocytic disorders pose significant diagnostic and management challenges for the clinicians due to diverse clinical manifestations and often non-specific histopathologic findings. Herein, we report the tumor board experience from the first-of-its-kind Histiocytosis Working Group (HWG). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The HWG was established in June 2017 and consists of experts from 10 subspecialties that discuss cases in a multidisciplinary format. We present the outcome of tumor board case discussions during the first 2 years since its inception (June 2017-June 2019). RESULTS: Forty cases with a suspected histiocytic disorder were reviewed at HWG during this time period. Average number of subspecialties involved in HWG case discussion was 5 (range, 2-9). Histiocytosis Working Group tumor board recommendations led to significant changes in the care of 24 (60%) patients. These included change in diagnosis (n = 11, 27%) and change in treatment (n = 13, 33%). CONCLUSION: Our report highlights the feasibility of a multidisciplinary tumor board and its impact on outcomes of patients with histiocytic disorders.

The clinical spectrum of haemorrhagic CNS inflammatory demyelinating lesions.

BACKGROUND: Haemorrhagic demyelinating lesions are rare, and little is known about the demyelinating diseases with which they are associated, or how lesional haemorrhage affects treatment and outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To examine the clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with demyelinating lesions and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evidence of haemorrhage seen at the Mayo clinic between 1990 and 2018. METHODS: The Mayo Clinic's medical-record diagnostic-linkage system was used to identify patients with CNS demyelinating disease and parenchymal haemorrhage on brain MRI cross-referenced against a database of patients with pathologically confirmed CNS demyelinating disease. The clinical characteristics, diagnosis, MRI findings, brain histopathology, and outcomes of these patients were reviewed. RESULTS: Ten patients with haemorrhagic demyelination were identified, including three patients who underwent a brain biopsy. The main findings were that haemorrhagic demyelinating lesions most often occur in atypical forms of demyelination, especially acute haemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (AHL, or Weston-Hurst disease) and tumefactive demyelination, and rarely in multiple sclerosis. A spectrum of outcomes was observed for these patients ranging from complete remission through to high level disability. CONCLUSION: Lesional haemorrhage is uncommon in demyelinating disease where it is most closely associated with AHL. Bleeding within a demyelinating lesion does not always herald a poor prognosis.

Long-term clinical, MRI, and cognitive follow-up in a large cohort of pathologically confirmed, predominantly tumefactive multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Limited studies have described long-term outcomes in pathology confirmed multiple sclerosis (MS). OBJECTIVES: To describe long-term clinical-radiographic-cognitive outcomes in a prospectively followed cohort of patients with pathologically confirmed CNS demyelinating disease, consistent with MS. METHODS: Subjects underwent clinical assessment, standardized 3T-MRI brain, and cognitive battery. RESULTS: Seventy-five patients were included. Biopsied lesion size was ⩾ 2 cm in 62/75. At follow-up, median duration since biopsy was 11 years. Median EDSS was 3 and lesion burden was large (median 10 cm3). At follow-up, 57/75 met MS criteria, 17/75 had clinically isolated syndrome, and 1 radiographic changes only. Disability scores were comparable to a prevalence cohort in Olmsted County (p < 0.001, n = 218). Cognitive outcomes below age-normed standards included psychomotor, attention, working memory, and executive function domains. Total lesion volume and index lesion-related severity correlated with EDSS and cognitive performance. Volumetric cortical/subcortical GM correlated less than lesion metrics to cognitive outcomes. CONCLUSION: Despite early aggressive course in pathologically confirmed MS, its long-term course was comparable to typical MS in our study. Cognitive impairment in this group seemed to correlate strongest to index lesion severity and total lesion volume. It remains to be established how the aggressive nature of the lesion, biopsy, and treatment affect clinical/cognitive outcomes.

Generative Adversarial Networks to Synthesize Missing T1 and FLAIR MRI Sequences for Use in a Multisequence Brain Tumor Segmentation Model.

Background Missing MRI sequences represent an obstacle in the development and use of deep learning (DL) models that require multiple inputs. Purpose To determine if synthesizing brain MRI scans using generative adversarial networks (GANs) allows for the use of a DL model for brain lesion segmentation that requires T1-weighted images, postcontrast T1-weighted images, fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) images, and T2-weighted images. Materials and Methods In this retrospective study, brain MRI scans obtained between 2011 and 2019 were collected, and scenarios were simulated in which the T1-weighted images and FLAIR images were missing. Two GANs were trained, validated, and tested using 210 glioblastomas (GBMs) (Multimodal Brain Tumor Image Segmentation Benchmark [BRATS] 2017) to generate T1-weighted images from postcontrast T1-weighted images and FLAIR images from T2-weighted images. The quality of the generated images was evaluated with mean squared error (MSE) and the structural similarity index (SSI). The segmentations obtained with the generated scans were compared with those obtained with the original MRI scans using the dice similarity coefficient (DSC). The GANs were validated on sets of GBMs and central nervous system lymphomas from the authors' institution to assess their generalizability. Statistical analysis was performed using the Mann-Whitney, Friedman, and Dunn tests. Results Two hundred ten GBMs from the BRATS data set and 46 GBMs (mean patient age, 58 years ± 11 [standard deviation]; 27 men [59%] and 19 women [41%]) and 21 central nervous system lymphomas (mean patient age, 67 years ± 13; 12 men [57%] and nine women [43%]) from the authors' institution were evaluated. The median MSE for the generated T1-weighted images ranged from 0.005 to 0.013, and the median MSE for the generated FLAIR images ranged from 0.004 to 0.103. The median SSI ranged from 0.82 to 0.92 for the generated T1-weighted images and from 0.76 to 0.92 for the generated FLAIR images. The median DSCs for the segmentation of the whole lesion, the FLAIR hyperintensities, and the contrast-enhanced areas using the generated scans were 0.82, 0.71, and 0.92, respectively, when replacing both T1-weighted and FLAIR images; 0.84, 0.74, and 0.97 when replacing only the FLAIR images; and 0.97, 0.95, and 0.92 when replacing only the T1-weighted images. Conclusion Brain MRI scans generated using generative adversarial networks can be used as deep learning model inputs in case MRI sequences are missing. © RSNA, 2021 Online supplemental material is available for this article. See also the editorial by Zhong in this issue. An earlier incorrect version of this article appeared online. This article was corrected on April 12, 2021.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis with lung involvement in isolation and multisystem disease: Staging, natural history, and comparative survival.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a histiocytic neoplasm that can involve the lungs as single system (LCH-SSL) or multisystem disease (LCH-MSL). The role of full-body radiographic staging to determine whether patients have LCH-SSL or LCH-MSL is unclear. Long-term outcomes of LCH-SSL versus LCH-MSL and multisystem without lung involvement (LCH-MSNL) are unknown. A retrospective study of adult LCH patients seen at our center from January 2000 to 2020 was performed. In Part 1, we addressed utility of whole-body staging imaging among those presenting with isolated pulmonary signs or symptoms. Staging was defined as fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography-computed tomography (CT) or whole-body CT obtained within 3 months of diagnosis. In Part 2, we examined the frequency of developing extra-pulmonary disease over time and mortality in patients with LCH-SSL. In Part 3, we compared the overall survival of LCH-SSL, LCH-MSL, and LCH-MSNL. Part 1: 240 patients with LCH were identified. A total of 112 (47%) had pulmonary signs or symptoms at presentation. Thirty-four (30%) underwent radiographic staging and only one showed evidence of extra-pulmonary disease. Part 2: 108 (45%) were LCH-SSL. Median follow-up duration of 4.5 years (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.9-6.0). None developed extra-pulmonary disease. Part 3: 5-year survival: 94% (95% CI: 84%-98%) for LCH-SSL, 78% (95% CI: 59%-90%) for LCH-MSL, and 75% (95% CI: 53%-89%) for LCH-MSNL. LCH patients presenting with isolated pulmonary signs or symptoms rarely have extra-pulmonary involvement at the time of diagnosis and generally do not develop extra-pulmonary progression. LCH-SSL has the best overall survival, while LCH-MSL and LCH-MSNL have similar clinical outcomes.

Efficacy of BRAF-Inhibitor Therapy in BRAFV600E -Mutated Adult Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a rare histiocytic neoplasm. To date, there is a lack of U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved treatments in adult LCH to establish optimal first-line therapy. We conducted a retrospective, single-center case series evaluating the use of BRAF inhibitors in adult patients with BRAFV600E - LCH proven by biopsy. Our case series is the first to report the use of BRAF inhibitors as first-line therapy in adults with LCH. We also report the efficacy with single-agent dabrafenib in adult LCH. All but one of our patients had favorable response to targeted therapy.

Pathological findings in central nervous system demyelination associated with infliximab.

BACKGROUND: Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) inhibitors, such as infliximab, are commonly used to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and other immune-mediated disorders. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether infliximab-associated central nervous system (CNS) demyelination can be differentiated from multiple sclerosis (MS). METHODS: We present a case of pathologically proven CNS demyelination in a patient treated with infliximab and describe clinical-radiographic-neuropathological findings. Putative mechanisms of TNF-alpha inhibitor-associated CNS demyelination are described. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Infliximab treatment is associated with CNS inflammatory demyelinating activity, which is histopathologically indistinguishable from MS.

Aquaporin-4 and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies in immune-mediated optic neuritis at long-term follow-up.

OBJECTIVES: To re-evaluate serum samples from our 2007 cohort of patients with single-episode isolated ON (SION), recurrent isolated ON (RION), chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy (CRION), multiple sclerosis-associated ON (MSON) and neuromyelitis optica (NMO). METHODS: We re-screened 103/114 patients with available serum on live cell-based assays (CBA) for aquaporin-4 (AQP4)-M23-IgG and myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-α1-IgG. Further testing included oligoclonal bands, serum levels of glial fibrillar acidic and neurofilament proteins and S100B. We show the impact of updated serology on these patients. RESULTS: Reanalysis of our original cohort revealed that AQP4-IgG seropositivity increased from 56% to 75% for NMO, 5% to 22% for CRION, 6% to 7% for RION, 0% to 7% for MSON and 5% to 6% for SION. MOG-IgG1 was identified in 25% of RION, 25% of CRION, 10% of SION, 0% of MSON and 0% of NMO. As a result, patients have been reclassified incorporating their autoantibody status. Presenting visual acuity was significantly worse in patients who were AQP4-IgG seropositive (p=0.034), but there was no relationship between antibody seropositivity and either ON relapse rate or visual acuity outcome. CONCLUSIONS: The number of patients with seronegative CRION and RION has decreased due to improved detection of autoantibodies over the past decade. It remains essential that the clinical phenotype guides both antibody testing and clinical management. Careful monitoring of the disease course is key when considering whether to treat with prophylactic immune suppression.

Aquaporin-4 and Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Autoantibody Status Predict Outcome of Recurrent Optic Neuritis.

PURPOSE: To determine the aquaporin-4 and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) immunoglobulin G (IgG) serostatus and visual outcomes in patients with recurrent optic neuritis (rON) initially seeking treatment. DESIGN: Cross-sectional cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: The study identified patients by searching the Mayo Clinic computerized central diagnostic index (January 2000-March 2017). The 246 eligible patients fulfilled the following criteria: (1) initially seeking treatment for at least 2 consecutive episodes of optic neuritis (ON) and (2) serum available for testing. METHODS: Serum was tested for aquaporin-4 IgG and MOG IgG1 using an in-house validated flow cytometric assay using live HEK293 cells transfected with M1 aquaporin-4 or full-length MOG. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Aquaporin-4 IgG and MOG IgG1 serostatus, clinical characteristics, and visual outcomes. RESULTS: Among 246 patients with rON at presentation, glial autoantibodies were detected in 32% (aquaporin-4 IgG, 19%; MOG IgG1, 13%); 186 patients had rON only and 60 patients had rON with subsequent additional inflammatory demyelinating attacks (rON-plus group). The rON-only cohort comprised the following: double seronegative (idiopathic), 110 patients (59%); MOG IgG1 positive, 27 patients (15%; 4 with chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy); multiple sclerosis (MS), 25 patients (13%); and aquaporin-4 IgG positive, 24 patients (13%). The rON-plus cohort comprised the following: aquaporin-4 IgG positive, 23 patients (38%); MS, 22 patients (37%); double seronegative, 11 patients (18%); and MOG IgG1 positive, 4 patients (7%). The annualized relapse rate for the rON-only group was 1.2 for MOG IgG1-positive patients, 0.7 for double-seronegative patients, 0.6 for aquaporin-4 IgG-positive patients, and 0.4 for MS patients (P = 0.005). The median visual acuity (VA) of patients with the worst rON-only attack at nadir were hand movements in aquaporin-4 IgG-positive patients, between counting fingers and hand movements in MOG IgG1-positive patients, 20/800 in idiopathic patients, and 20/100 in MS patients (P = 0.02). The median VA at last follow-up for affected eyes of the rON-only cohort were counting fingers for aquaporin-4 IgG-positive patients, 20/40 for idiopathic patients, 20/25 for MS patients and MOG IgG1-positive patients (P = 0.006). At 5 years after ON onset, 59% of aquaporin-4 IgG-positive patients, 22% of idiopathic patients, 12% of MOG IgG1-positive patients, and 8% of MS patients were estimated to have severe visual loss. CONCLUSIONS: Glial autoantibodies (MOG IgG1 or aquaporin-4 IgG) are found in one third of all patients with rON. Aquaporin-4 IgG seropositivity predicts a worse visual outcome than MOG IgG1 seropositivity, double seronegativity, or MS diagnosis. Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein IgG1 is associated with a greater relapse rate but better visual outcomes.

Diagnostic criteria for chronic lymphocytic inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids (CLIPPERS).

Chronic lymphocytic inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids (CLIPPERS) is a central nervous system inflammatory syndrome predominantly affecting the brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Following its initial description, the salient features of CLIPPERS have been confirmed and expanded upon, but the lack of formalized diagnostic criteria has led to reports of patients with dissimilar features purported to have CLIPPERS. We evaluated clinical, radiological and pathological features of patients referred for suspected CLIPPERS and propose diagnostic criteria to discriminate CLIPPERS from non-CLIPPERS aetiologies. Thirty-five patients were evaluated for suspected CLIPPERS. Clinical and neuroimaging data were reviewed by three neurologists to confirm CLIPPERS by consensus agreement. Neuroimaging and neuropathology were reviewed by experienced neuroradiologists and neuropathologists, respectively, both of whom were blinded to the clinical data. CLIPPERS was diagnosed in 23 patients (18 male and five female) and 12 patients had a non-CLIPPERS diagnosis. CLIPPERS patients' median age of onset was 58 years (interquartile range, 24-72) and were followed a median of 44 months (interquartile range 38-63). Non-CLIPPERS patients' median age of onset was 52 years (interquartile range, 39-59) and were followed a median of 27 months (interquartile range, 14-47). Clinical symptoms of gait ataxia, diplopia, cognitive impairment, and facial paraesthesia did not discriminate CLIPPERS from non-CLIPPERS. Marked clinical and radiological corticosteroid responsiveness was observed in CLIPPERS (23/23), and clinical worsening occurred in all 12 CLIPPERS cases when corticosteroids were discontinued. Corticosteroid responsiveness was common but not universal in non-CLIPPERS [clinical improvement (8/12); radiological improvement (2/12); clinical worsening on discontinuation (3/8)]. CLIPPERS patients had brainstem predominant perivascular gadolinium enhancing lesions on magnetic resonance imaging that were discriminated from non-CLIPPERS by: homogenous gadolinium enhancing nodules <3 mm in diameter without ring-enhancement or mass effect, and homogenous T2 signal abnormality not significantly exceeding the T1 enhancement. Brain neuropathology on 14 CLIPPERS cases demonstrated marked CD3-positive T-lymphocyte, mild B-lymphocyte and moderate macrophage infiltrates, with perivascular predominance as well as diffuse parenchymal infiltration (14/14), present in meninges, white and grey matter, associated with variable tissue destruction, astrogliosis and secondary myelin loss. Clinical, radiological and pathological feature define CLIPPERS syndrome and are differentiated from non-CLIPPERS aetiologies by neuroradiological and neuropathological findings.

Clinical-radiological-pathological spectrum of central nervous system-idiopathic inflammatory demyelinating disease in the elderly.

BACKGROUND: The spectrum of central nervous system-idiopathic inflammatory demyelinating disease (CNS-IIDD) in the elderly is uncertain. OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical, radiological, and pathological features of a cohort of 30 pathologically proven CNS-IIDD patients ⩾65 years. METHODS: Elderly multiple sclerosis (MS)/clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) patients were compared to a cohort of 125 patients with pathologically proven MS/CIS and symptom onset <65 years. RESULTS: Median age at symptom onset was 69 years (interquartile range (IQR) = 68-75). Median follow-up was 1.9 years (IQR = 1.0-5.6). Diagnoses were MS (14/30), CIS (11/30), neuromyelitis optica (NMO; 4/30), and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM; 1/30). Disability was higher in patients with MS/CIS ⩾65 compared to patients <65 (median Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) 4 (IQR = 2.5-7) vs 2.5 (IQR = 1.5-4); p = 0.002). When compared to patients <65 years, there was no difference in the lesion size, number of patients fulfilling Barkhof's criteria, edema, or mass effect. Confluent demyelination was observed in 27 patients (MS/CIS (23/25), NMO (4)), 2 had a mixed perivenular/confluent pattern (MS (1), ADEM (1)), and 1 patient with MS had a mixed confluent/perivenular/coalescent pattern. Early active lesions were found in 19/30 patients ((MS (4), CIS (13), NMO (2); 53%). Cortical demyelination was present in 7/12 (58%) patients (MS (3), CIS(3), ADEM (1)). CONCLUSION: A spectrum of CNS-IIDD can develop in the elderly, with presenting symptoms similar to younger patients. Early diagnosis of CNS demyelinating disease is essential to avoid invasive and disabling procedures.

CLIPPERS.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Chronic lymphocytic inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids (CLIPPERS) is a recently described treatable, inflammatory, brainstem predominant encephalomyelitis. The diagnosis of CLIPPERS is challenging without a specific biomarker, and thus it is important to consider if both the clinical and radiographic features are consistent with the diagnosis, or rather a disease mimicker. RECENT FINDINGS: Many patients with CLIPPERS-like lesions have been described in the literature with follow-up revealing a range of alternative diagnoses, such as malignancies, vasculitis, and other specific inflammatory diseases. As a result, some have proposed that CLIPPERS might represent a pre-malignancy state or simply an initial clinical syndrome of a variety of possible etiologies. We describe the typical clinical, radiographic, and pathological features of CLIPPERS and emphasize consideration for alternative diagnoses when findings are not classic. A recommended diagnostic evaluation and initial treatment plan is provided.