A Viral Immunoevasin Controls Innate Immunity by Targeting the Prototypical Natural Killer Cell Receptor Family.

Natural killer (NK) cells play a key role in innate immunity by detecting alterations in self and non-self ligands via paired NK cell receptors (NKRs). Despite identification of numerous NKR-ligand interactions, physiological ligands for the prototypical NK1.1 orphan receptor remain elusive. Here, we identify a viral ligand for the inhibitory and activating NKR-P1 (NK1.1) receptors. This murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV)-encoded protein, m12, restrains NK cell effector function by directly engaging the inhibitory NKR-P1B receptor. However, m12 also interacts with the activating NKR-P1A/C receptors to counterbalance m12 decoy function. Structural analyses reveal that m12 sequesters a large NKR-P1 surface area via a "polar claw" mechanism. Polymorphisms in, and ablation of, the viral m12 protein and host NKR-P1B/C alleles impact NK cell responses in vivo. Thus, we identify the long-sought foreign ligand for this key immunoregulatory NKR family and reveal how it controls the evolutionary balance of immune recognition during host-pathogen interplay.

CARD 2023: expanded curation, support for machine learning, and resistome prediction at the Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database.

The Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD; card.mcmaster.ca) combines the Antibiotic Resistance Ontology (ARO) with curated AMR gene (ARG) sequences and resistance-conferring mutations to provide an informatics framework for annotation and interpretation of resistomes. As of version 3.2.4, CARD encompasses 6627 ontology terms, 5010 reference sequences, 1933 mutations, 3004 publications, and 5057 AMR detection models that can be used by the accompanying Resistance Gene Identifier (RGI) software to annotate genomic or metagenomic sequences. Focused curation enhancements since 2020 include expanded ß-lactamase curation, incorporation of likelihood-based AMR mutations for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, addition of disinfectants and antiseptics plus their associated ARGs, and systematic curation of resistance-modifying agents. This expanded curation includes 180 new AMR gene families, 15 new drug classes, 1 new resistance mechanism, and two new ontological relationships: evolutionary_variant_of and is_small_molecule_inhibitor. In silico prediction of resistomes and prevalence statistics of ARGs has been expanded to 377 pathogens, 21,079 chromosomes, 2,662 genomic islands, 41,828 plasmids and 155,606 whole-genome shotgun assemblies, resulting in collation of 322,710 unique ARG allele sequences. New features include the CARD:Live collection of community submitted isolate resistome data and the introduction of standardized 15 character CARD Short Names for ARGs to support machine learning efforts.

Long-term impact of bone-modifying agents for the treatment of bone metastases: a systematic review.

PURPOSE: Bone-modifying agents (BMAs) for bone metastases are commonly prescribed for many years even though randomized clinical trials are only 1-2 years in duration. A systematic review on the risk-benefit of BMA use for > 2 years in breast cancer or castrate-resistant prostate cancer was conducted. METHODS: MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane databases were searched (1970-February 2019) for randomized and observational studies, and case series reporting on BMA efficacy (skeletal-related events and quality of life) and toxicity (osteonecrosis of the jaw, renal impairment, hypocalcemia, and atypical femoral fractures) beyond 2 years. RESULTS: Of 2107 citations, 64 studies were identified. Three prospective and 9 retrospective studies were eligible. Data beyond 2 years was limited to subgroup analyses in all studies. Only one study (n = 181) reported skeletal-related event rates based on bisphosphonate exposure, with decreased rates from 27.6% (0-24 months) to 15.5% (> 24 months). None reported on quality of life. All 12 studies (denosumab (n = 948), zoledronate (n = 1036), pamidronate (n = 163), pamidronate-zoledronate (n = 522), ibandronate (n = 118)) reported ≥ 1 toxicity outcome. Seven bisphosphonate studies (n = 1077) and one denosumab study (n = 948) reported on osteonecrosis of the jaw. Across three studies (n = 1236), osteonecrosis of the jaw incidence ranged from 1 to 4% in the first 2 years to 3.8-18% after 2 years. Clinically significant hypocalcemia ranged from 1 to 2%. Severe renal function decline was ≤ 3%. Atypical femoral fractures were rare. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence informing the use of BMA beyond 2 years is heterogeneous and based on retrospective analysis. Prospective randomized studies with greater emphasis on quality of life are needed. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42019126813.

Critical role for the Ly49 family of class I MHC receptors in adaptive natural killer cell responses.

Adaptive natural killer (NK) cell memory represents a new frontier in immunology. Work over the last decade has discovered and confirmed the existence of NK cells with antigen-specific memories, which had previously been considered a unique property of T and B cells. These findings have shown that antigen-specific NK cells gain their specificity without the use of RAG proteins, representing a novel mechanism for generating antigen specificity, but the details of this mechanism have remained a mystery. We have discovered that members of the Ly49 family of surface receptors are critically involved in both the sensitization and the challenge phases of an NK cell memory response, as is antigen presentation from their binding partner, the class I MHC. Moreover, we demonstrate that the Ly49-interacting component of a presented antigen dictates the specificity of the NK cell memory response, implicating Ly49 receptors themselves in antigen-specific recognition. Finally, we demonstrate that adaptive NK cell memories can protect against an otherwise lethal melanoma without T cell or B cell support. These findings offer insight into the mechanism behind NK cell antigen specificity and demonstrate the clinical potential of this adaptive immune cell.

Influenza Virus Targets Class I MHC-Educated NK Cells for Immunoevasion.

The immune response to influenza virus infection comprises both innate and adaptive defenses. NK cells play an early role in the destruction of tumors and virally-infected cells. NK cells express a variety of inhibitory receptors, including those of the Ly49 family, which are functional homologs of human killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR). Like human KIR, Ly49 receptors inhibit NK cell-mediated lysis by binding to major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules that are expressed on normal cells. During NK cell maturation, the interaction of NK cell inhibitory Ly49 receptors with their MHC-I ligands results in two types of NK cells: licensed ("functional"), or unlicensed ("hypofunctional"). Despite being completely dysfunctional with regard to rejecting MHC-I-deficient cells, unlicensed NK cells represent up to half of the mature NK cell pool in rodents and humans, suggesting an alternative role for these cells in host defense. Here, we demonstrate that after influenza infection, MHC-I expression on lung epithelial cells is upregulated, and mice bearing unlicensed NK cells (Ly49-deficient NKCKD and MHC-I-deficient B2m-/- mice) survive the infection better than WT mice. Importantly, transgenic expression of an inhibitory self-MHC-I-specific Ly49 receptor in NKCKD mice restores WT influenza susceptibility, confirming a direct role for Ly49. Conversely, F(ab')2-mediated blockade of self-MHC-I-specific Ly49 inhibitory receptors protects WT mice from influenza virus infection. Mechanistically, perforin-deficient NKCKD mice succumb to influenza infection rapidly, indicating that direct cytotoxicity is necessary for unlicensed NK cell-mediated protection. Our findings demonstrate that Ly49:MHC-I interactions play a critical role in influenza virus pathogenesis. We suggest a similar role may be conserved in human KIR, and their blockade may be protective in humans.

Correction: Influenza Virus Targets Class I MHC-Educated NK Cells for Immunoevasion.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005446.].

Genetic investigation of MHC-independent missing-self recognition by mouse NK cells using an in vivo bone marrow transplantation model.

MHC-I-specific receptors play a vital role in NK cell-mediated "missing-self" recognition, which contributes to NK cell activation. In contrast, MHC-independent NK recognition mechanisms are less well characterized. In this study, we investigated the role of NKR-P1B:Clr-b (Klrb1:Clec2d) interactions in determining the outcome of murine hematopoietic cell transplantation in vivo. Using a competitive transplant assay, we show that Clr-b(-/-) bone marrow (BM) cells were selectively rejected by wild-type B6 recipients, to a similar extent as H-2D(b-/-) MHC-I-deficient BM cells. Selective rejection of Clr-b(-/-) BM cells was mitigated by NK depletion of recipient mice. Competitive rejection of Clr-b(-/-) BM cells also occurred in allogeneic transplant recipients, where it was reversed by selective depletion of NKR-P1B(hi) NK cells, leaving the remaining NKR-P1B(lo) NK subset and MHC-I-dependent missing-self recognition intact. Moreover, competitive rejection of Clr-b(-/-) hematopoietic cells was abrogated in Nkrp1b-deficient recipients, which lack the receptor for Clr-b. Of interest, similar to MHC-I-deficient NK cells, Clr-b(-/-) NK cells were hyporesponsive to both NK1.1 (NKR-P1C)-stimulated and IL-12/18 cytokine-primed IFN-γ production. These findings support a unique and nonredundant role for NKR-P1B:Clr-b interactions in missing-self recognition of normal hematopoietic cells and suggest that optimal BM transplant success relies on MHC-independent tolerance mechanisms. These findings provide a model for human NKR-P1A:LLT1 (KLRB1:CLEC2D) interactions in human hematopoietic cell transplants.

Optimized tetramer analysis reveals Ly49 promiscuity for MHC ligands.

Murine Ly49 receptors, which are expressed mainly on NK and NKT cells, interact with MHC class I (MHC-I) molecules with varying specificity. Differing reports of Ly49/MHC binding affinities may be affected by multiple factors, including cis versus trans competition and species origin of the MHC-I L chain (ß2-microglobulin). To determine the contribution of each of these factors, Ly49G, Ly49I, Ly49O, Ly49V, and Ly49Q receptors from the 129 mouse strain were expressed individually on human 293T cells or the mouse cell lines MHC-I-deficient C1498, H-2(b)-expressing MC57G, and H-2(k)-expressing L929. The capacity to bind to H-2D(b)- and H-2K(b)-soluble MHC-I tetramers containing either human or murine ß2-microglobulin L chains was tested for all five Ly49 receptors in all four cell lines. We found that most of these five inhibitory Ly49 receptors show binding for one or both self-MHC-I molecules in soluble tetramer binding assays when three conditions are fulfilled: 1) lack of competing cis interactions, 2) tetramer L chain is of mouse origin, and 3) Ly49 is expressed in mouse and not human cell lines. Furthermore, Ly49Q, the single known MHC-I receptor on plasmacytoid dendritic cells, was shown to bind H-2D(b) in addition to H-2K(b) when the above conditions were met, suggesting that Ly49Q functions as a pan-MHC-Ia receptor on plasmacytoid dendritic cells. In this study, we have optimized the parameters for soluble tetramer binding analyses to enhance future Ly49 ligand identification and to better evaluate specific contributions by different Ly49/MHC-I pairs to NK cell education and function.

Impaired natural killer cell self-education and "missing-self" responses in Ly49-deficient mice.

Ly49-mediated recognition of MHC-I molecules on host cells is considered vital for natural killer (NK)-cell regulation and education; however, gene-deficient animal models are lacking because of the difficulty in deleting this large multigene family. Here, we describe NK gene complex knockdown (NKC(KD)) mice that lack expression of Ly49 and related MHC-I receptors on most NK cells. NKC(KD) NK cells exhibit defective killing of MHC-I-deficient, but otherwise normal, target cells, resulting in defective rejection by NKC(KD) mice of transplants from various types of MHC-I-deficient mice. Self-MHC-I immunosurveillance by NK cells in NKC(KD) mice can be rescued by self-MHC-I-specific Ly49 transgenes. Although NKC(KD) mice display defective recognition of MHC-I-deficient tumor cells, resulting in decreased in vivo tumor cell clearance, NKG2D- or antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity-induced tumor cell cytotoxicity and cytokine production induced by activation receptors was efficient in Ly49-deficient NK cells, suggesting MHC-I education of NK cells is a single facet regulating their total potential. These results provide direct genetic evidence that Ly49 expression is necessary for NK-cell education to self-MHC-I molecules and that the absence of these receptors leads to loss of MHC-I-dependent "missing-self" immunosurveillance by NK cells.

A mobile CRISPRi collection enables genetic interaction studies for the essential genes of Escherichia coli.

Advances in gene editing, in particular CRISPR interference (CRISPRi), have enabled depletion of essential cellular machinery to study the downstream effects on bacterial physiology. Here, we describe the construction of an ordered E. coli CRISPRi collection, designed to knock down the expression of 356 essential genes with the induction of a catalytically inactive Cas9, harbored on the conjugative plasmid pFD152. This mobile CRISPRi library can be conjugated into other ordered genetic libraries to assess combined effects of essential gene knockdowns with non-essential gene deletions. As proof of concept, we probed cell envelope synthesis with two complementary crosses: (1) an Lpp deletion into every CRISPRi knockdown strain and (2) the lolA knockdown plasmid into the Keio collection. These experiments revealed a number of notable genetic interactions for the essential phenotype probed and, in particular, showed suppressing interactions for the loci in question.

Inhibiting fatty acid synthesis overcomes colistin resistance.

Treating multidrug-resistant infections has increasingly relied on last-resort antibiotics, including polymyxins, for example colistin. As polymyxins are given routinely, the prevalence of their resistance is on the rise and increases mortality rates of sepsis patients. The global dissemination of plasmid-borne colistin resistance, driven by the emergence of mcr-1, threatens to diminish the therapeutic utility of polymyxins from an already shrinking antibiotic arsenal. Restoring sensitivity to polymyxins using combination therapy with sensitizing drugs is a promising approach to reviving its clinical utility. Here we describe the ability of the biotin biosynthesis inhibitor, MAC13772, to synergize with colistin exclusively against colistin-resistant bacteria. MAC13772 indirectly disrupts fatty acid synthesis (FAS) and restores sensitivity to the last-resort antibiotic, colistin. Accordingly, we found that combinations of colistin and other FAS inhibitors, cerulenin, triclosan and Debio1452-NH3, had broad potential against both chromosomal and plasmid-mediated colistin resistance in chequerboard and lysis assays. Furthermore, combination therapy with colistin and the clinically relevant FabI inhibitor, Debio1452-NH3, showed efficacy against mcr-1 positive Klebsiella pneumoniae and colistin-resistant Escherichia coli systemic infections in mice. Using chemical genomics, lipidomics and transcriptomics, we explored the mechanism of the interaction. We propose that inhibiting FAS restores colistin sensitivity by depleting lipid synthesis, leading to changes in phospholipid composition. In all, this work reveals a surprising link between FAS and colistin resistance.

Preclinical Development of Pentamidine Analogs Identifies a Potent and Nontoxic Antibiotic Adjuvant.

The difficulty in treating Gram-negative bacteria can largely be attributed to their highly impermeable outer membrane (OM), which serves as a barrier to many otherwise active antibiotics. This can be overcome with the use of perturbant molecules, which disrupt OM integrity and sensitize Gram-negative bacteria to many clinically available Gram-positive-active antibiotics. Although many new perturbants have been identified in recent years, most of these molecules are impeded by toxicity due to the similarities between pathogen and host cell membranes. For example, our group recently reported the cryptic OM-perturbing activity of the antiprotozoal drug pentamidine. Its development as an antibiotic adjuvant is limited, however, by toxicity concerns. Herein, we took a medicinal chemistry approach to develop novel analogs of pentamidine, aiming to improve its OM activity while reducing its off-target toxicity. We identified the compound P35, which induces OM disruption and potentiates Gram-positive-active antibiotics in Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Relative to pentamidine, P35 has reduced mammalian cell cytotoxicity and hERG trafficking inhibition. Additionally, P35 outperforms pentamidine in a murine model of A. baumannii bacteremia. Together, this preclinical analysis supports P35 as a promising lead for further development as an OM perturbant.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of 12-Versus 4-Weekly Administration of Bone-Targeted Agents in Patients with Bone Metastases from Breast and Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer.

A cost-utility analysis was performed based on the Rethinking Clinical Trials (REaCT) bone-targeted agents (BTA) clinical trial that compared 12-weekly (once every 12 weeks) (n = 130) versus 4-weekly (once every 4 weeks) (n = 133) BTA dosing for metastatic breast and castration-resistant prostate (CRPC) cancer. Using a decision tree model, we calculated treatment and symptomatic skeletal event (SSE) costs as well as quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) for each treatment option. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the robustness of the study findings. The total cost of BTA treatment in Canadian dollars (C$) and estimated QALYs was C$8965.03 and 0.605 QALY in the 4-weekly group versus C$5669.95 and 0.612 QALY in the 12-weekly group, respectively. De-escalation from 4-weekly to 12-weekly BTA reduces cost (C$3293.75) and improves QALYs by 0.008 unit, suggesting that 12-weekly BTA dominates 4-weekly BTA in breast and CRPC patients with bone metastases. Sensitivity analysis suggests high levels of uncertainty in the cost-effectiveness findings. De-escalation of bone-targeted agents is cost-effective from the Canadian public payer's perspective.

Inhibition of the CCL2 receptor, CCR2, enhances tumor response to immune checkpoint therapy.

Immunotherapies targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 axis are now a mainstay in the clinical management of multiple cancer types, however, many tumors still fail to respond. CCL2 is highly expressed in various cancer types and has been shown to be associated with poor prognosis. Inhibition or blockade of the CCL2/CCR2 signaling axis has thus been an area of interest for cancer therapy. Here we show across multiple murine tumor and metastasis models that CCR2 antagonism in combination with anti-PD-1 therapy leads to sensitization and enhanced tumor response over anti-PD-1 monotherapy. We show that enhanced treatment response correlates with enhanced CD8+ T cell recruitment and activation and a concomitant decrease in CD4+ regulatory T cell. These results provide strong preclinical rationale for further clinical exploration of combining CCR2 antagonism with PD-1/PD-L1-directed immunotherapies across multiple tumor types especially given the availability of small molecule CCR2 inhibitors and antibodies.

Molecular Biomarkers of Response to PD-1/ PD-L1 Immune Checkpoint Blockade in Advanced Bladder Cancer.

BACKGROUND: The activity of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in the treatment of advanced bladder cancer (BC) is promising for many patients. However, a subset of patients do not benefit from treatment, thus leading to an effort to better identify predictive molecular biomarkers of response. OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic review of the literature on predictive molecular biomarkers associated with response to PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors in advanced bladder cancer, defined as locally-advanced, unresectable, or metastatic (mBC) disease. METHODS: A search of the literature was performed using Embase (1947 - January 2019), Medline (1946 - January 2019), and EBM Reviews for Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (as of December 2018). Studies examining the association of molecular biomarkers with clinical outcome in BC treated with PD-1 or PD-L1 monotherapy were included. Outcomes of interest were overall survival (OS), cancer-specific survival (CSS), progression-free survival (PFS), duration of response, and objective response rate (ORR). RESULTS: Using the study search criteria, 899 unique abstract citations were found, of which 834 did not meet the eligibility criteria. Full text of the remaining 65 citations were screened, and 50 studies excluded, including 18 review articles. Eight additional studies from the bibliography of the review papers were included, making a total of 23 studies. Five PD-1 / PD-L1 antibodies have been tested in BC immunohistochemistry (IHC). These studies used different expression scoring criteria and generally had poor ability to discriminate likelihood for response. Overall, the data suggests CD8+ T cell infiltration is necessary to mediate an antitumor immune response, but other immune cell populations, such as neutrophils may suppress T cell-mediated immunity and efficacy of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade. An IFNγ signature is a promising predictor, but there needs to be consensus on the optimal gene panel composition, and prospective validation. Tumor mutation burden (TMB) is a promising predictor in six studies reporting on 1200 patients, but there is not a consensus on the optimal definition of "high TMB". Detection of T cell receptor (TCR) clonal expansion has only been conducted in small studies and so its predictive value remains inconclusive. Epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT) and transforming growth factor ß (TGFß) are associated with poor prognosis and possibly intrinsic resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint blockade, but more work needs to be done to build upon and confirm the initial findings. CONCLUSIONS: Currently no molecular biomarker is sufficiently mature for routine clinical use, while some candidates, or a combination show great promise and need further study.

NKR-P1B expression in gut-associated innate lymphoid cells is required for the control of gastrointestinal tract infections.

Helper-type innate lymphoid cells (ILC) play an important role in intestinal homeostasis. Members of the NKR-P1 gene family are expressed in various innate immune cells, including natural killer (NK) cells, and their cognate Clr ligand family members are expressed in various specialized tissues, including the intestinal epithelium, where they may play an important role in mucosal-associated innate immune responses. In this study, we show that the inhibitory NKR-P1B receptor, but not the Ly49 receptor, is expressed in gut-resident NK cells, ILC, and a subset of γδT cells in a tissue-specific manner. ILC3 cells constitute the predominant cell subset expressing NKR-P1B in the gut lamina propria. The known NKR-P1B ligand Clr-b is broadly expressed in gut-associated cells of hematopoietic origin. The genetic deletion of NKR-P1B results in a higher frequency and number of ILC3 and γδT cells in the gut lamina propria. However, the function of gut-resident ILC3, NK, and γδT cells in NKR-P1B-deficient mice is impaired during gastrointestinal tract infection by Citrobacter rodentium or Salmonella typhimurium, resulting in increased systemic bacterial dissemination in NKR-P1B-deficient mice. Our findings highlight the role of the NKR-P1B:Clr-b recognition system in the modulation of intestinal innate immune cell functions.

ROS1 Gene Rearrangements Are Associated With an Elevated Risk of Peridiagnosis Thromboembolic Events.

INTRODUCTION: This study aims to determine whether advanced ROS1 gene-rearranged NSCLC (ROS1+ NSCLC) has a higher than expected thromboembolic event (TEE) rate. METHODS: Venous and arterial TEEs within ±365 days of diagnosis of ROS1+, ALK+, EGFR+, or KRAS+ advanced NSCLC at five academic centers in the United States and China were captured (October 2002-April 2018). The primary endpoint was incidence of TEE in ROS1+ compared to anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK)+, EGFR+, and KRAS+ NSCLC within ±90 days of diagnosis. Logistic regression was used to assess if the odds of TEE differed among oncogene drivers. RESULTS: Eligible data from 95 ROS1+, 193 ALK+, 300 EGFR+, and 152 KRAS+ NSCLC patients were analyzed. The incidence rate of TEE was 34.7% (n = 33), 22.3% (n = 43), 13.7% (n = 41), and 18.4% (n = 28), respectively. In univariate analysis, the odds of a TEE in ROS1+ NSCLC were higher than ALK+, EGFR+, and KRAS+ cohorts. In multivariable analysis, the odds of a TEE were significantly higher for ROS1+ compared to EGFR+ and KRAS+ cohorts, the odds ratio (OR) was 2.44, with a 95% confidence interval of 1.31-4.57 (p = 0.005), and OR: 2.62, with a 95% confidence interval of 1.26-5.46 (p = 0.01), respectively. Although numerically superior, the odds for a TEE with ROS1+ compared to ALK+ was not statistically significant (OR: 1.45, p = 0.229). Overall survival was not significantly different in patients with or without TEE within ±90 days of diagnosis in the overall study cohort or within each molecular group. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of peridiagnostic TEEs is significantly elevated in patients with advanced ROS+ NSCLC compared to EGFR+ and KRAS+ cases. TEE risk may be similarly elevated in ALK+ NSCLC.

Targeting DDR2 enhances tumor response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy.

While a fraction of cancer patients treated with anti-PD-1 show durable therapeutic responses, most remain unresponsive, highlighting the need to better understand and improve these therapies. Using an in vivo screening approach with a customized shRNA pooled library, we identified DDR2 as a leading target for the enhancement of response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. Using isogenic in vivo murine models across five different tumor histologies-bladder, breast, colon, sarcoma, and melanoma-we show that DDR2 depletion increases sensitivity to anti-PD-1 treatment compared to monotherapy. Combination treatment of tumor-bearing mice with anti-PD-1 and dasatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor of DDR2, led to tumor load reduction. RNA-seq and CyTOF analysis revealed higher CD8+ T cell populations in tumors with DDR2 depletion and those treated with dasatinib when either was combined with anti-PD-1 treatment. Our work provides strong scientific rationale for targeting DDR2 in combination with PD-1 inhibitors.

Immunosurveillance and Immunoediting of Breast Cancer via Class I MHC Receptors.

Ly49 receptors, which recognize "self" class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC-I) molecules, enable natural killer (NK) cells to detect loss of MHC-I expression on transformed and virally infected cells. The impact of NK cell-mediated MHC-I surveillance on immunoediting of breast cancer is still not fully understood. This work assesses the impact of Ly49 receptors on tumor development in terms of cancer control and in driving immune-evading cancer mutations. Genetically modified Ly49-deficient mice and those lacking NK cells through antibody depletion were less able to control E0771-derived mammary tumors in an MHC-I-dependent fashion. Similarly, Ly49-deficient MMTV-PyVT-transgenic mice developed spontaneous mammary tumors faster than Ly49-sufficient MMTV-PyVT mice. Fewer CD69+ and granzyme B+ NK cells were detected among the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in Ly49-deficient than in Ly49-sufficient MMTV-PyVT mice. Furthermore, tumors from Ly49-deficient mice displayed reduced MHC-I expression, suggesting that tumors growing in these mice lacked an Ly49-derived pressure to maintain MHC-I expression. These same MHC-I-low tumors from Ly49-deficient mice were unable to flourish when transferred to Ly49-sufficient hosts, confirming that this tumor mutation was in response to an Ly49-deficient environment. This work demonstrates a role for Ly49 receptors in the control of mammary cancer, and provides evidence to support a model of tumor immunoediting, in which selective pressures from the immune system drive immune-evasive cancer mutations. Cancer Immunol Res; 5(11); 1016-28. ©2017 AACR.

Licensed and Unlicensed NK Cells: Differential Roles in Cancer and Viral Control.

Natural killer (NK) cells are known for their well characterized ability to control viral infections and eliminate tumor cells. Through their repertoire of activating and inhibitory receptors, NK cells are able to survey different potential target cells for various surface markers, such as MHC-I - which signals to the NK cell that the target is healthy - as well as stress ligands or viral proteins, which alert the NK cell to the aberrant state of the target and initiate a response. According to the "licensing" hypothesis, interactions between self-specific MHC-I receptors - Ly49 in mice and KIR in humans - and self-MHC-I molecules during NK cell development is crucial for NK cell functionality. However, there also exists a large proportion of NK cells in mice and humans, which lack self-specific MHC-I receptors and are consequentially "unlicensed." While the licensed NK cell subset plays a major role in the control of MHC-I-deficient tumors, this review will go on to highlight the important role of the unlicensed NK cell subset in the control of MHC-I-expressing tumors, as well as in viral control. Unlike the licensed NK cells, unlicensed NK cells seem to benefit from the lack of self-specific inhibitory receptors, which could otherwise be exploited by some aberrant cells for immunoevasion by upregulating the expression of ligands or mimic ligands for these receptors.