Complete genome sequence of virulent genotype I African swine fever virus strain K49 from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, isolated from a domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus).

African swine fever is one of the most feared infectious diseases in the pig industry. African swine fever virus (ASFV) is an enveloped, cytoplasmic double-stranded DNA virus and the only member of the family Asfarviridae. Although ASFV is known to have been circulating on the African continent since at least 1921, little is known about the genetic characteristics of historical ASFV strains isolated in sub-Saharan Africa. The few complete ASFV genome sequences obtained from African historical isolates have demonstrated genetic diversity, but the available data are limited and insufficient for fully understanding the molecular evolution and continental spread of ASFV. Here, we report the complete genome sequence of the virulent ASFV strain K49, collected during an outbreak in the Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) in 1949. The complete genome sequence of ASFV strain K49 was determined using an Illumina HiSeq platform and is 189,523 bp in length with a mean GC content of 38.43%, with 189 genes annotated. This is the first reported complete genome sequence of an ASFV serogroup 2 isolate. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated genetic divergence within genotype I, and strain K49 formed a separate branch from other ASFV genotype I isolates.

Immunologic Pathways in Protective versus Maladaptive Host Responses to Attenuated and Pathogenic Strains of Mycoplasma gallisepticum.

Mycoplasmas are small bacterial commensals or pathogens that commonly colonize host mucosal tissues and avoid rapid clearance, in part by stimulating inflammatory, immunopathogenic responses. We previously characterized a wide array of transcriptomic perturbations in avian host tracheal mucosae infected with virulent, immunopathologic Mycoplasma gallisepticum; however, mechanisms delineating these from protective responses, such as those induced upon vaccination, have not been thoroughly explored. In this study, host transcriptomic responses to two experimental M. gallisepticum vaccines were assessed during the first 2 days of infection. Relative to virulent infection, host metabolic and immune gene responses to both vaccines were greatly decreased, including early innate immune responses critical to disease development and subsequent adaptive immunity. These data specify host genes and potential mechanisms contributing to maladaptive versus beneficial host responses-information critical for design of vaccines efficacious in both limiting inflammation and enabling pathogen clearance.

Identification of T-cell epitopes in African swine fever virus CD2v and C-type lectin proteins.

African swine fever (ASF) is an emerging disease threat for the swine industry worldwide. No ASF vaccine is available, and progress is hindered by lack of knowledge concerning the extent of ASF virus (ASFV) strain diversity and the viral antigens conferring type-specific protective immunity in pigs. Previously, we demonstrated that ASFV serotype-specific proteins CD2v (EP402R) and/or C-type lectin (EP153R) are important for protection against homologous ASF infection. Here, we identified six discrete T-cell epitope regions present on CD2v and C-type lectin using IFN-γ ELISpot assay and PBMCs from ASF immune animals, indicating cellular reactivity to these proteins in the context of ASFV infection and protective immunity. Notably, three of the epitope regions map to previously described serotype-specific signature regions of these proteins. Improved understanding of ASFV protective antigens, relevant epitopes and their diversity in nature will facilitate ASFV subunit vaccine design and development.

Coinfection with multiple strains of bovine papular stomatitis virus.

Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) infects cattle and, occupationally, humans. Prevalent subclinical infections, frequent reinfections, and virus persistence in healthy animals compound a poorly understood, but likely complex, scenario of BPSV perpetuation and transmission in nature. Here, we report the isolation of multiple BPSV strains coinfecting a single animal. Whole-genome analysis of isolated BPSV strains revealed genomic variability likely affecting virus virulence and infectivity. Further, incongruent phylogenetic relationships between viruses suggested genomic recombination. These results have significant implications for parapoxvirus infection biology and virus evolution in nature.

Semi-automated curation of metabolic models via flux balance analysis: a case study with Mycoplasma gallisepticum.

Primarily used for metabolic engineering and synthetic biology, genome-scale metabolic modeling shows tremendous potential as a tool for fundamental research and curation of metabolism. Through a novel integration of flux balance analysis and genetic algorithms, a strategy to curate metabolic networks and facilitate identification of metabolic pathways that may not be directly inferable solely from genome annotation was developed. Specifically, metabolites involved in unknown reactions can be determined, and potentially erroneous pathways can be identified. The procedure developed allows for new fundamental insight into metabolism, as well as acting as a semi-automated curation methodology for genome-scale metabolic modeling. To validate the methodology, a genome-scale metabolic model for the bacterium Mycoplasma gallisepticum was created. Several reactions not predicted by the genome annotation were postulated and validated via the literature. The model predicted an average growth rate of 0.358±0.12[Formula: see text], closely matching the experimentally determined growth rate of M. gallisepticum of 0.244±0.03[Formula: see text]. This work presents a powerful algorithm for facilitating the identification and curation of previously known and new metabolic pathways, as well as presenting the first genome-scale reconstruction of M. gallisepticum.

Rationally designed Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccine using a recombinant subunit approach.

Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is an avian respiratory pathogen causing significant global economic losses to the poultry industries. Current live-attenuated and bacterin vaccines provide some measures of protective immunity but exhibit suboptimal efficacy, utility, or safety. To address these shortcomings, we utilized knowledge of MG biology and virulence to develop a subunit vaccine containing recombinantly produced primary adhesin GapA, cytadhesin-related molecule CrmA, and four early-phase-expressed variable lipoprotein hemagglutinins (VlhAs) (3.03, 3.06, 4.07, 5.05) of the virulent strain Rlow. The vaccine was tested in chickens using a subcutaneous dose of 50 µg per protein, a prime-boost schedule, and strain Rlow challenge in multiple studies to compare adjuvant formulations. While different adjuvants resulted in variable levels of protection, only CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN 2007) resulted in significant reductions of both MG recovery and tracheal pathology. These results demonstrate that a rationally designed and safe subunit vaccine is efficacious against MG disease.

Comparison of Attenuated and Virulent Strains of African Swine Fever Virus Genotype I and Serogroup 2.

African swine fever (ASF) is a contagious disease of pigs caused by the ASF virus (ASFV). The main problem in the field of ASF control is the lack of vaccines. Attempts to obtain vaccines by attenuating the ASFV on cultured cell lines led to the production of attenuated viruses, some of which provided protection against infection with a homologous virus. Here we report on the biological and genomic features of the attenuated Congo-a (KK262) virus compared to its virulent homologue Congo-v (K49). Our results showed differences in in vivo replication and virulence of Congo-a. However, the attenuation of the K49 virus did not affect its ability to replicate in vitro in the primary culture of pig macrophages. Complete genome sequencing of the attenuated KK262 strain revealed an 8,8 kb deletion in the left variable region of the genome compared to the virulent homologue K49. This deletion concerned five genes of MGF360 and three genes of MGF505. In addition, three inserts in the B602L gene, genetic changes in intergenic regions and missense mutations in eight genes were detected. The data obtained contribute to a better understanding of ASFV attenuation and identification of potential virulence genes for further development of effective vaccines.

Are Purple Finches (Haemorhous purpureus) the Next Host for a Mycoplasmal Conjunctivitis Epidemic?

Ever since 1994, when the bacterial pathogen Mycoplasma gallisepticum jumped from poultry to wild birds, it has been assumed that the primary host species of this pathogen in wild North American birds was the house finch (Haemorhous mexicanus), in which disease prevalence was higher than in any other bird species. Here we tested two hypotheses to explain a recent increase in disease prevalence in purple finches (Haemorhous purpureus) around Ithaca, New York. Hypothesis 1 is that, as M. gallisepticum evolved and became more virulent, it has also become better adapted to other finches. If this is correct, early isolates of M. gallisepticum should cause less-severe eye lesions in purple finches than in house finches, while more-recent isolates should cause eye lesions of similar severity in the two species. Hypothesis 2 is that, as house finch abundance declined following the M. gallisepticum epidemic, purple finches around Ithaca increased in abundance relative to house finches and purple finches are thus more frequently exposed to M. gallisepticum-infected house finches. This would then lead to an increase in M. gallisepticum prevalence in purple finches. Following an experimental infection with an early and a more-recent M. gallisepticum isolate, eye lesions in purple finches were more severe than in house finches. This did not a support Hypothesis 1; similarly, an analysis of Project Feeder Watch data collected around Ithaca did not show differences in changes in purple and house finches' abundance since 2006, a result which does not support Hypothesis 2. We conclude that purple finch populations will, unlike those of house finches, not suffer a severe decline because of a M. gallisepticum epidemic.

¿Son los pinzones purpúreos (Haemorhous purpureus) los próximos huéspedes de una epidemia de conjuntivitis por micoplasma? Desde el año 1994, cuando el patógeno bacteriano Mycoplasma gallisepticum saltó de las aves comerciales a las aves silvestres, se ha supuesto que la principal especie huésped de este patógeno en las aves silvestres de América del Norte era el pinzón mexicano (Haemorhous mexicanus), en el que la prevalencia de la enfermedad era mayor que en cualquier otra especie aviar. En este estudio se analizaron dos hipótesis para explicar un aumento reciente en la prevalencia de la enfermedad en los pinzones purpúreos (Haemorhous purpureus) alrededor de Ithaca, en Nueva York. La hipótesis 1 es que, a medida que M. gallisepticum evolucionó y se volvió más virulento, también se adaptó mejor a otros pinzones. Si esto es correcto, los aislamientos tempranos de M. gallisepticum deberían causar lesiones oculares menos graves en los pinzones purpúreos que en los pinzones mexicanos, mientras que los aislamientos más recientes deberían causar lesiones oculares de gravedad similar en las dos especies. La hipótesis 2 es que, a medida que la abundancia de pinzones mexicanos disminuyó después de la epidemia de M. gallisepticum, los pinzones purpúreos alrededor de Ithaca aumentaron en abundancia en relación con los pinzones mexicanos y, por lo tanto, los pinzones morados están expuestos con mayor frecuencia a los pinzones caseros infectados con M. gallisepticum. Esto conduciría a un aumento de la prevalencia de M. gallisepticum en los pinzones purpúreos. Después de una infección experimental con un aislamiento temprano y uno más reciente de M. gallisepticum, las lesiones oculares en los pinzones purpúreos fueron más graves que en los pinzones mexicanos. Esto no apoyó la Hipótesis 1; de manera similar, un análisis de los datos del Proyecto Feeder Watch recopilados alrededor de Ithaca no mostró diferencias en los cambios de la abundancia de pinzones purpúreos y mexicanos desde 2006, un resultado que no respalda la Hipótesis 2. Se concluye que las poblaciones de pinzones purpúreos, a diferencia de las de los pinzones mexicanos, no sufrieron un declive severo a causa de una epidemia de M. gallisepticum.

Effects of intramuscularly injected plant-derived antimicrobials in the mouse model.

With increasing antibiotic resistance, the use of plant derived antimicrobials (PDAs) has gained momentum. Here, we investigated the toxicity of trans-cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, and carvacrol after intramuscular injection in mice. Two doses of each PDA-300 and 500 mg/kg body weight-and vehicle controls were injected into the muscle of the right hind limb of CD-1 adult mice (n = 8/treatment). Ten physical/behavioral parameters were monitored hourly for 2 h and twice daily for 4 days post-injection together with postmortem examination of leg muscles and organs. Within the first 2 days of carvacrol treatment, one male died in each dose level and a third male receiving 500 mg/kg was removed from the study. No mortality was seen with any other treatment. Among all 81 parameters examined, significant higher relative liver weights (300 and 500 mg/kg eugenol groups; P < 0.05) and relative kidney weights (300 mg/kg carvacrol group; P < 0.001) were observed. Taken together, little to mild toxicity was seen for trans-cinnamaldehyde and eugenol, respectively, while carvacrol exerted more toxicity in males. This study lays the foundation for future extensive work with large sample size, varied treatment durations, and additional treatment levels.

Coding Complete Genome Sequence of the SARS-CoV-2 Virus Strain, Variant B.1.1, Sampled from Kazakhstan.

This article describes the results of sequencing and analysis of the entire genome of the SARS-CoV-2 virus sampled in Kazakhstan in 2021. The whole-genome sequence of the strain was 29,751 bp. According to the results of phylogenetic analysis (according to the Pangolin COVID-19 database), the SARS-CoV-2/human/KAZ/B1.1/2021 strain studied here was assigned to variant B.1.1.

Transcriptomic Responses of Mycoplasma bovis Upon Treatments of trans-Cinnamaldehyde, Carvacrol, and Eugenol.

Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is an insidious, wall-less primary bacterial pathogen that causes bovine pneumonia, mid-ear infection, mastitis, and arthritis. The economic losses caused by M. bovis due to culling, diminished milk production, and feed conversion are underestimated because of poor diagnosis/recognition. Treatment with common antibiotics targeting the cell wall is ineffective. Plant-derived antimicrobials (PDAs) such as food-grade trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC), eugenol (EU), and carvacrol (CAR) are inexpensive and generally regarded as safe for humans and animals yet possess strong anti-bacterial properties. In preliminary studies, we found that all three PDAs inhibited the growth of M. bovis in vitro. Through RNA sequencing, we report here that CAR affected the expression of 153 genes which included the downregulation of energy generation-related proteins, pentose phosphate pathway, and upregulation of ribosomes and translation-related proteins. Few differentially expressed genes were found when M. bovis was treated with TC, EU, or when the three PDAs were double or triple combined. Our results suggest that, as opposed to the effect of CAR, the growth-inhibitory effects of TC and EU at levels tested may be exerted through mechanisms other than gene expression regulations.

A Single-Administration Microneedle Skin Patch for Multi-Burst Release of Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2.

The necessity for multiple injections and cold-chain storage has contributed to suboptimal vaccine utilization, especially in pandemic situations. Thermally-stable and single-administration vaccines hold a great potential to revolutionize the global immunization process. Here, a new approach to thermally stabilize protein-based antigens is presented and a new high-throughput antigen-loading process is devised to create a single-administration, pulsatile-release microneedle (MN) patch which can deliver a recombinant SARS-CoV-2 S1-RBD protein-a model for the COVID-19 vaccine. Nearly 100% of the protein antigen could be stabilized at temperatures up to 100 °C for at least 1 h and at an average human body temperature (37 °C) for up to 4 months. Arrays of the stabilized S1-RBD formulations can be loaded into the MN shells via a single-alignment assembly step. The fabricated MNs are administered at a single time into the skin of rats and induce antibody response which could neutralize authentic SARS-CoV-2 viruses, providing similar immunogenic effect to that induced by multiple bolus injections of the same antigen stored in conventional cold-chain conditions. The MN system presented herein could offer the key solution to global immunization campaigns by avoiding low patient compliance, the requirement for cold-chain storage, and the need for multiple booster injections.

Vaccination with Mycoplasma pneumoniae membrane lipoproteins induces IL-17A driven neutrophilia that mediates Vaccine-Enhanced Disease.

Bacterial lipoproteins are an often-underappreciated class of microbe-associated molecular patterns with potent immunomodulatory activity. We previously reported that vaccination of BALB/c mice with Mycoplasma pneumoniae (Mp) lipid-associated membrane proteins (LAMPs) resulted in lipoprotein-dependent vaccine enhanced disease after challenge with virulent Mp, though the immune responses underpinning this phenomenon remain poorly understood. Herein, we report that lipoprotein-induced VED in a mouse model is associated with elevated inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-17A, and KC in lung lavage fluid and with suppurative pneumonia marked by exuberant neutrophilia in the pulmonary parenchyma. Whole-lung-digest flow cytometry and RNAScope analysis identified multiple cellular sources for IL-17A, and the numbers of IL-17A producing cells were increased in LAMPs-vaccinated/Mp-challenged animals compared to controls. Specific IL-17A or neutrophil depletion reduced disease severity in our VED model-indicating that Mp lipoproteins induce VED in an IL-17A-dependent manner and through exuberant neutrophil recruitment. IL-17A neutralization reduced levels of TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, and KC, indicating that IL-17A preceded other inflammatory cytokines. Surprisingly, we found that IL-17A neutralization impaired bacterial clearance, while neutrophil depletion improved it-indicating that, while IL-17A appears to confer both maladaptive and protective responses, neutrophils play an entirely maladaptive role in VED. Given that lipoproteins are found in virtually all bacteria, the potential for lipoprotein-mediated maladaptive inflammatory responses should be taken into consideration when developing vaccines against bacterial pathogens.

B cells oppose Mycoplasma pneumoniae vaccine enhanced disease and limit bacterial colonization of the lungs.

Development of an effective vaccine for Mycoplasma pneumoniae has been hindered by reports of Vaccine Enhanced Disease (VED) in test subjects vaccinated and challenged in studies conducted in the 1960s. The exact mechanism of disease exacerbation has yet to be fully described, but host immune responses to Lipid-Associated Membrane Proteins (LAMPs) lipoprotein lipid moieties have been implicated. LAMPs-induced exacerbation appears to involve helper T cell recall responses, due in part to their influence on neutrophil recruitment and subsequent inflammatory responses in the lung. Herein, we characterized the functions of host B cell responses to M. pneumoniae LAMPs and delipidated-LAMPs (dLAMPs) by conducting passive transfer and B cell depletion studies to assess their contribution to disease exacerbation or protection using a BALB/c mouse model. We found that antibody responses to M. pneumoniae LAMPs and dLAMPs differ in magnitude, but not in isotype or subclass. Passive transfer, dLAMP denaturation, and monoclonal antibody studies indicate that antibodies do not cause VED, but do appear to contribute to control of bacterial loads in the lungs. Depletion of B cells prior to LAMPs-vaccination results in significantly enhanced pathology in comparison to B cell competent controls, suggesting a possible regulatory role of B cells distinct from antibody secretion. Taken together, our findings suggest that B cell antibody responses to M. pneumoniae contribute to, but are insufficient for protection against challenge on their own, and that other functional properties of B cells are necessary to limit exacerbation of disease in LAMPs-vaccinated mice after infection.

A gatekeeper protein contributes to T3SS2 function via interaction with an ATPase in Vibrio parahaemolyticus.

Assembly of a functional type III secretion system (T3SS) requires intricate protein-protein interactions in many bacterial species. In Vibrio parahaemolyticus, the leading cause of seafood-associated diarrheal illnesses, the gatekeeper protein VgpA is essential for T3SS2 to secrete its substrates. However, it is unknown if VgpA interacts with other core elements of T3SS2 to mediate its substrate secretion. Through bacterial two-hybrid (BACTH) analysis, we now show that VgpA physically interacts with VscN2 (an ATPase essential for T3SS function) and six other hypothetical proteins. Mutation of isoleucine to alanine at residue 175 of VgpA (VgpAI175A) abolished its ability to interact with VscN2. Importantly, complementation of a VgpA nonsense mutant (vgpA') with VgpAI175A did not restore the ability of T3SS2 to secrete substrates, demonstrating that VgpA-VscN2 interaction is critical for the function of T3SS2. Bacterial cell fractionation and mass spectrometry analyses showed that vgpA' resulted in significant alterations of T3SS2 protein abundance in multiple bacterial cell fractions. Particularly, VscN2 abundance in the inner membrane fraction and VscC2 abundance in the outer membrane fraction are significantly reduced in vgpA' compared to those in WT. These results demonstrated that VgpA contributes to T3SS2 function via its interaction with VscN2 and possibly by affecting subcellular distribution of T3SS2 proteins.

Growth Kinetics and Protective Efficacy of Attenuated ASFV Strain Congo with Deletion of the EP402 Gene.

African swine fever (ASF) is an emerging disease threat to the swine industry worldwide. There is no vaccine against ASF, and progress is hindered by a lack of knowledge concerning the extent of ASFV strain diversity and the viral antigens conferring type-specific protective immunity in pigs. We have previously demonstrated that homologous ASFV serotype-specific proteins CD2v (EP402R) and/or C-type lectin are required for protection against challenge with the virulent ASFV strain Congo (Genotype I, Serogroup 2), and we have identified T-cell epitopes on CD2v which may be associated with serotype-specific protection. Here, using a cell-culture adapted derivative of the ASFV strain Congo (Congo-a) with specific deletion of the EP402R gene (ΔCongoCD2v) in swine vaccination/challenge experiments, we demonstrated that deletion of the EP402R gene results in the failure of ΔCongoCD2v to induce protection against challenge with the virulent strain Congo (Congo-v). While ΔCongoCD2v growth kinetics in COS-1 cells and primary swine macrophage culture were almost identical to parental Congo-a, replication of ΔCongoCD2v in vivo was significantly reduced compared with parental Congo-a. Our data support the idea that the CD2v protein is important for the ability of homologous live-attenuated vaccines to induce protective immunity against the ASFV strain Congo challenge in vivo.

Cytotoxic effects on cancerous and non-cancerous cells of trans-cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol, and eugenol.

Essential oils and their active components, referred here as plant derived antimicrobials (PDAs), have been used for their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Many reports also document PDAs' cytotoxic effects on cancerous cells, raising the hope that they could be used for cancer treatments. Due to the lack of specificity, we hypothesize that PDAs are cytotoxic to both cancerous and non-cancerous cells. Trans-cinnamaldehyde (TCA), carvacrol, and eugenol were assessed for their cytotoxicity on cancerous HeLa cells and normal skin fibroblasts (CCD-1123Sk, CCD) by MTT and LDH assays, flow cytometry, and reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). After 24 h of treatment, carvacrol and TCA significantly decreased cell viability (by more than 50%) at 100 µg/ml, whereas eugenol was ineffective up to 400 µg/ml. Cell detachment and significantly increased apoptosis were observed with 100 µg/ml of TCA on both cell types. RT-qPCR for apoptotic genes (BCL2, CASP3 and CASP8) and necrosis genes (MLKL, RIPK1 and RIPK3) did not show significant differences between control and treated cells of both types, with the exception of eugenol-treated HeLa cells in which expression of BCL2, MLKL and RIPK1 was significantly higher than controls. Taken together, we conclude that the three PDAs studied here exhibited similar cytotoxic effects on both cancerous and non-cancerous cells.

Identification of 'Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis' in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus during a survey of charr production facilities in North America.

Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus production facilities, nonproduction water sources and effluents in the United States and Canada were sampled to determine if chlamydiae associated with epitheliocystis were present in water and were associated with inclusions of epitheliocystis in gill tissue. Gills from 607 fish from 13 sites were processed for histopathologic examination and DNA extraction. Water was collected from 21 locations for DNA testing. Eighteen fish from one location had inclusions of epitheliocystis with proliferative and inflammatory gill lesions. Inclusions were stained using the Gimenez technique and, at the ultrastructural level, consisted of intracytoplasmic membrane-bound vacuoles containing reticulate and intermediate bodies in a fibrillar matrix. PCR using Order Chlamydiales-specific primers performed on DNA extracts from 12 of 13 infected fish yielded amplicons that were identical to (GQ302988) or differed at one base from (GQ302987) the 16S ribosomal RNA gene signature sequence of 'Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis', which is the chlamydia that was previously identified in epitheliocystis inclusions of farmed Atlantic salmon. In situ hybridization using a approximately 1.5 kb riboprobe corresponding to the 'Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis' 16S rRNA genetic sequence (AY462244) confirmed its presence within Arctic charr gill inclusions. DNA isolated from water samples was tested by Chlamydiales-specific PCR and yielded 54 partial 16S rRNA genetic sequences spanning the signature region; however, no 16S rRNA genetic sequences associated with epitheliocystis were identified. This is the first report of 'Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis' associated with epitheliocystis in Arctic charr, the first identification of 'Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis' from a freshwater production location, and the first reported occurrence in North America.

Lipid moieties of Mycoplasma pneumoniae lipoproteins are the causative factor of vaccine-enhanced disease.

Vaccine-enhanced disease (VED) occurs as a result of vaccination followed by infection with virulent Mycoplasma pneumoniae. To date VED has prevented development of an efficacious vaccine against this significant human respiratory pathogen. Herein we report that vaccination of BALB/c mice with M. pneumoniae lipid-associated membrane proteins (LAMPs) induces lung lesions consistent with exacerbated disease following challenge, without reducing bacterial loads. Removal of lipid moieties from LAMPs prior to vaccination eliminates VED and reduces bacterial loads after infection. Collectively, these data indicate that lipid moieties of lipoproteins are the causative factors of M. pneumoniae VED.

HOUSE FINCH ( HAEMORHOUS MEXICANUS)-ASSOCIATED MYCOPLASMA GALLISEPTICUM IDENTIFIED IN LESSER GOLDFINCH ( SPINUS PSALTRIA) AND WESTERN SCRUB JAY ( APHELOCOMA CALIFORNICA) USING STRAIN-SPECIFIC QUANTITATIVE PCR.

: In 1994 Mycoplasma gallisepticum was found to be the etiologic agent of House Finch ( Haemorhous mexicanus) conjunctivitis, a rapidly expanding epidemic caused by a genetically discrete, House Finch-associated strain of M. gallisepticum (HFMG). While most prominent in House Finches, HFMG has been reported in other members of the family Fringillidae, including American Goldfinches ( Spinus tristis), Purple Finches ( Haemorhous purpureus), Pine Grosbeaks ( Pinicola enucleator), and Evening Grosbeaks ( Coccothraustes vespertinus). Herein we report two new potential host species of HFMG strain, the Lesser Goldfinch ( Spinus psaltria), belonging to the Fringillidae family, and the Western (California) Scrub Jay ( Aphelocoma californica), belonging to the Corvidae family. The latter is one of only two reports of HFMG being found outside the Fringillidae family, and of these is the only one reported outside of captivity. Furthermore, non-HFMG M. gallisepticum was identified in an American Crow ( Corvus brachyrhynchos), indicating presence of additional strains in wild birds. Strain typing of M. gallisepticum isolates was done via HFMG-specific quantitative PCR analysis and validated using random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis. Our results suggested an expanded host range of HFMG strain, and further suggested that the host range of HFMG was not limited to members of the family Fringillidae.