Effect of extraction time on content, composition and sensory perception of proanthocyanidins in wine-like medium and during industrial fermentation of Cabernet Sauvignon.

BACKGROUND: The research objectives focused on the extraction of grape tannins during extended maceration. Skins and seeds were extracted separately in a wine-like medium. In parallel, the same grapes were fermented in industrial tanks. The content and structural characteristics of extractable proanthocyanidins (PAs) were determined spectrophotometrically and using UHPLC-DAD-MS/MS, respectively. Skin, seed extracts and fermented wines were characterized in chemical and sensorial terms after different extraction durations. RESULTS: The extraction of high molecular-weight PAs (HMWPs) from seeds increased for up to 20 days, whereas low molecular-weight PAs (LMWPs) reached a plateau earlier. The extraction of HMWPs and LMWPs from skins reached a maximum at the first sampling. Sensory evaluation confirmed greater astringency and bitterness of seed extracts with increasing time. Neither seed nor skin extracts differed statistically in terms of the mean degree of polymerization (mDP) and percentage of galloylation (%G) on different extraction days (except for seeds at the first sampling). During industrial maceration, HMWPs and LMWPs increased up to 12.7% alcohol (9 days of maceration); thereafter, the increase was not significant, whereas the mDP, %G and percentage of prodelphinidins did not significantly change after 11.4% alcohol. There were positive correlations with the wine astringency and PA content. CONCLUSION: Looking at both simulated and industrial maceration, it can be concluded that, with a longer maceration time, the increase in HMWP content was more evident than PA structural changes. The increasing content of tannins from seeds played an important role in the greater astringency and bitterness of Cabernet Sauvignon macerated at length. © 2019 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Enhancement of Istrian Malvasia wine aroma and hydroxycinnamate composition by hand and mechanical leaf removal.

BACKGROUND: Leaf removal is a viticultural practice that promotes the biosynthesis of several important grape constituents by improving fruit zone microclimate. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of hand and mechanical leaf removal, applied at the pea-size stage of berry development, on fruit zone microclimate, volatile aroma compounds, hydroxycinnamates and sensory characteristics of Istrian Malvasia (Vitis vinifera L.) wines. Three different sunlight exposure conditions were applied: hand leaf removal (HLR), mechanical leaf removal (MLR) and untreated control (UC). RESULTS: Both leaf removal treatments, and especially the more intense HLR, significantly increased the concentration of varietal thiol 3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol, monoterpenes, ß-damascenone and esters. The higher concentration of these aromas contributed to the improvement of wine sensory quality, as expressed by more enhanced floral, fruity and tropical sensory attributes in leaf removal treatments. Hydroxycinnamates were increased only by HLR, a treatment with a greater degree of fruit exposure to sunlight than MLR. CONCLUSION: Leaf removal applied at the pea-size stage of berry development in a season characterized by abundant rainfall improves both the chemical composition and sensory quality of Istrian Malvasia wine, even when performed by machine, implying that this technique might be successfully applied in large-scale viticultural production. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Cyanidin 3-glucoside targets a hepatic bilirubin transporter in rats.

One of the organ-specific functions of the liver is the excretion of bilirubin into the bile. Membrane transport of bilirubin from the blood to the liver is not only an orphan function, because there is no link to the protein/gene units that perform this function, but also a poorly characterised function. The aim of this study was to investigate the pharmacology of bilirubin uptake in the liver of the female Wistar rat to improve basic knowledge in this neglected area of liver physiology. We treated isolated perfused livers of female rats with repeated single-pass, albumin-free bilirubin boli. We monitored both bilirubin and bilirubin glucuronide in perfusion effluent with a bio-fluorometric assay. We tested the ability of nine molecules known as substrates or inhibitors of sinusoidal membrane transporters to inhibit hepatic uptake of bilirubin. We found that cyanidin 3-glucoside and malvidin 3-glucoside were the only molecules that inhibited bilirubin uptake. These dietary anthocyanins resemble bromosulfophthalein (BSP), a substrate of several sinusoidal membrane transporters. The SLCO-specific substrates estradiol-17 beta-glucuronide, pravastatin, and taurocholate inhibited only bilirubin glucuronide uptake. Cyanidin 3-glucoside and taurocholate acted at physiological concentrations. The SLC22-specific substrates indomethacin and ketoprofen were inactive. We demonstrated the existence of a bilirubin-glucuronide transporter inhibited by bilirubin, a fact reported only once in the literature. The data suggest that bilirubin and bilirubin glucuronide are transported to the liver via pharmacologically distinct membrane transport pathways. Some dietary anthocyanins may physiologically modulate the uptake of bilirubin into the liver.

Exceptionally fast uptake and metabolism of cyanidin 3-glucoside by rat kidneys and liver.

To asses the hypothesis that anthocyanins are rapidly taken up from the blood into tissues, where they accumulate up to their bioactivity threshold, an intravenous dose of cyanidin 3-glucoside (1) was administered to anaesthetized rats. Cyanidin 3-glucoside (1) and its metabolites were analyzed in the plasma, kidneys, liver, urine, and bile, using last-generation mass spectrometry. Compound 1 was found to rapidly disappear from plasma (t/2=0.36 min). As soon as 15 s after its administration, both 1 and its methylation product, peonidin 3-glucoside (2), were detected in the plasma, kidneys, and liver. At 1 min, both 1 and 2 had almost disappeared from the plasma, but attained their peak concentrations in the kidneys and in the liver. Compound 2 was rapidly excreted both in the bile and in the urine. Three additional methylated metabolites were detected in traces, namely, delphinidin 3-glucoside (3), petunidin 3-glucoside (4), and malvidin 3-glucoside (5). These data contribute to solving the paradox of the high bioactivity of anthocyanins in spite of their apparent low bioavailability.

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) Cultivar 'Majda', a Naturally Non-Browning Cultivar: An Assessment of Its Qualities.

Browning of apple and apple products has been a topic of numerous research and there is a great number of methods available for browning prevention. However, one of the most efficient ways, and the one most acceptable for the consumers, is the selection of a non-browning cultivar. Cultivar 'Majda' is a Slovenian cultivar, a cross between 'Jonatan' and 'Golden Noble'. In this study, it was thoroughly examined and compared to the well-known cultivar 'Golden Delicious' with the aim to decipher the reason for non-browning. We have determined the content of sugars, organic acids, vitamin C, glutathione and phenolics in apple flesh, with the addition of phenolic content in apple peel and leaves. The change in color in halves and pomace was also measured and the activity of peroxidase (POX) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) were determined. Additionally, the analyses of flesh were repeated post-storage. The most prominent results were high acidity (malic acid), low phenol content, especially hydroxycinnamic acid and flavan-3-ol content of cultivar 'Majda' in comparison to 'Golden Delicious', and no difference in PPO activity between cultivars. After the overview of the results, we believe that both low phenol content and high reduced glutathione content impact the non-browning characteristics of cultivar 'Majda'.

Bioavailability of flavonoids: a review of their membrane transport and the function of bilitranslocase in animal and plant organisms.

Fruits and vegetables are rich in flavonoids, and ample epidemiological data show that diets rich in fruits and vegetables confer protection against cardiovascular, neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases, and cancer. However, flavonoid bioavailability is reportedly very low in mammals and the molecular mechanisms of their action are still poorly known. This review focuses on membrane transport of flavonoids, a critical determinant of their bioavailability. Cellular influx and efflux transporters are reviewed for their involvement in the absorption of flavonoids from the gastro-intestinal tract and their subsequent tissue distribution. A focus on the mammalian bilirubin transporter bilitranslocase (TCDB 2.A.65.1.1) provides further insight into flavonoid bioavailability and its relationship with plasma bilirubin (an endogenous antioxidant). The general function of bilitranslocase as a flavonoid membrane transporter is further demonstrated by the occurrence of a plant homologue in organs (petals, berries) where flavonoid biosynthesis is most active. Bilitranslocase appears associated with sub-cellular membrane compartments and operates as a flavonoid membrane transporter.

The fate of trans-caftaric acid administered into the rat stomach.

trans-Caftaric acid is the most abundant nonflavonoid phenolic compound in grapes and wines. It occurs in chicory and is one of the bioactive components of Echinacea purpurea. In order to fill the gap of knowledge about its bioavailability in mammals, we investigated its absorption, tissue distribution, and metabolism in rats. Assuming that the stomach is a relevant site of absorption of dietary polyphenols, a solution of trans-caftaric acid was maintained in the ligated stomach of anaesthetized rats for 20 min. Intact trans-caftaric acid was detected in rat plasma at both 10 and 20 min (293 +/- 45 and 334 +/- 49 ng/mL, respectively), along with its O-methylated derivative trans-fertaric acid, whose concentration rose over time (from 92 +/- 12 to 185 +/- 24 ng/mL). At 20 min, both trans-caftaric acid and trans-fertaric acid were detected in the kidney (443 +/- 78 and 2506 +/- 514 ng/g, respectively) but not in the liver. Only trans-fertaric acid was found in the urine (33.3 +/- 12.8 microg/mL). In some rats, trans-caftaric acid was detected in the brain (180 +/- 20 ng/g).

UHPLC-MS/MS determination of varietal thiol precursors in Sauvignon Blanc grapes.

Varietal thiol precursors in grapes are subject to metabolic changes during post-harvest treatments. Metabolic activity should therefore be limited after sampling to understand their biosynthesis in the berry and genetic regulation. In this study, berries were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after harvesting, transported in dry ice, stored briefly at -80 °C, cryo-milled and extracted without being thawed in cold methanol in a ratio of 1:4 (w/v). A UHPLC-MS/MS method for quantitative determination of the thiol precursors 3-S-glutathionylhexan-1-ol (G3MH), 3-S-cysteinylhexan-1-ol (Cys3MH), 4-S-glutathionyl-4-methylpentan-2-one (G4MMP) and 4-S-cysteinyl-4-methylpentan-2-one (Cys4MMP), glutathione, oxidized glutathione and L-methionine in grapes was developed. Reference material was provided through synthesis of precursors and their deuterium labelled analogues. The average thiol precursor content in grapes in 2013-15 was in the range 8-16 µg kg-1 for G3MH, 1-6 µg kg-1 for Cys3MH, 1-4 µg kg-1 for Cys4MMP and 0.3 µg kg-1 for G4MMP. In 2013 and 2014, the highest precursor content in mature Sauvignon Blanc grapes from vineyards located in Italy regarded G3MH, followed by Cys3MH, Cys4MMP and G4MMP. In 2015, G3MH was again the most abundant precursor, but followed by Cys4MMP, Cys3MH and G4MMP.

Combined Effects of Early Season Leaf Removal and Climatic Conditions on Aroma Precursors in Sauvignon Blanc Grapes.

Early leaf removal around the cluster zone is a common technique applied in cool climate viticulture, to regulate yield components and improve fruit quality. Despite the increasing amount of information on early leaf removal and its impact on total soluble solids, anthocyanins, and polyphenols, less is known regarding aroma compounds. In order to verify the hypothesis that defoliation, applied before or after flowering, could impact the biosynthesis of thiol precursors, we performed a two year (2013 and 2014) experiment on Sauvignon blanc. We provided evidence that differential accumulation of thiol precursors in berries is affected by the timing of defoliation, and this impact was related to modifications in the biosynthetic pathway. Furthermore, the possible interaction between leaf removal treatment and seasonal weather conditions, and its effect on the biosynthesis of volatile precursors are discussed. Our results suggested that in Sauvignon blanc the relative proportion of 4-S-glutathionyl-4-methylpentan-2-one (G-4MSP) and 3-S-glutathionylhexan-1-ol (G-3SH) precursors can be affected by defoliation, and this could be related to the induction of two specific genes encoding glutathione-S-transferases (VvGST3 and VvGST5), while no significant effects on basic fruit chemical parameters, polyphenols, and methoxypyrazines were ascertained under our experimental conditions.

Fast access of some grape pigments to the brain.

Anthocyanins represent the main flavonoid pigments in red grape and wine, in red berries, and in many other fruits and vegetables and are widespread in the human diet. After ingestion, these complex, hydrophilic compounds quickly appear as intact molecules in the plasma. This study investigated their presence in the brain of anesthetized rats that received 8 mg/kg of body weight of a pure anthocyanin mixture extracted from Vitis vinifera grapes. The mixture was maintained in the stomach for 10 min. After this time, intact anthocyanins were detected by HPLC-DAD-MS not only in the plasma (176.4 +/- 50.5 ng/mL, mean +/- SEM) but also in the brain (192.2 +/- 57.5 ng/g). These results demonstrate for the first time that grape pigments can reach the mammalian brain within minutes from their introduction into the stomach.

The stomach as a site for anthocyanins absorption from food.

The ability of anthocyanins to permeate the gastric mucosa can be suggested as a possible explanation of the fast kinetics of plasma appearance of anthocyanins in rats and humans. This paper presents an in vivo experiment aimed to prove the involvement of the stomach in the absorption of grape anthocyanins in rats. The required analytical selectivity and sensitivity was achieved by high-performance liquid chromatography, diode array detection and mass spectrometry. Malvidin 3-glucoside appeared in both portal and systemic plasma after only 6 min. The average concentrations measured in portal and systemic plasma were 0.650+/-0.162 microM and 0.234+/-0.083 microM (mean+/-S.E.M.), respectively.

Lower crop load for Cv. Jonagold apples (Malus x domestica Borkh.) increases polyphenol content and fruit quality.

The influence of crop load on fruit quality was investigated on 7-year-old slender spindle cv. Jonagold/M.9 apple trees. In mid June five different crop loads per tree were prepared by reducing the fruit number to average 30, 59, 104, 123, and 157 fruits per crown. The fruit from low-cropping trees had more red blush, a higher percentage of soluble solids in fruit flesh, and better flesh firmness in comparison to fruit from high-cropping trees. As the crop load decreased, the concentration of all phenolic compounds in the fruit samples (cortex plus skin) increased; concentrations of the most important individual fruit phenolics were also higher. When crop load fell from 157 to 30 fruits per crown, total polyphenols increased from an average of 1300 to 1680 mg/kg of fruit fresh weight (FW) (+29%), low molecular weight polyphenols increased from 1140 to 1570 mg/kg of FW (+38%), and high molecular weight polyphenols increased from 1740 to 2070 mg/kg of FW (+19%). The average increases in single polyphenols were even greater: chlorogenic acid (+82%); 4'-p-coumaroylquinic acid (+22%); catechin (+178%); and epicatechin (+71%). Ascorbic acid was not significantly dependent on crop load.

Metabolomic profiling and sensorial quality of 'Golden Delicious', 'Liberty', 'Santana', and 'Topaz' apples grown using organic and integrated production systems.

Apple quality was investigated in the scab-resistant 'Liberty', 'Santana', and 'Topaz' cultivars and the scab-susceptible 'Golden Delicious' cultivar. Trees subjected to the same crop load were cultivated using either an organic (ORG) or an integrated production (IP) system. Physicochemical properties, phenolic content, and sensorial quality of fruit from both systems were compared. There were no significant differences in fruit mass, starch, and total soluble solid content (the latter was higher in ORG 'Liberty') between ORG and IP fruit, whereas significantly higher flesh firmness was found in ORG fruit (except no difference in 'Golden Delicious'). Significantly higher total phenolic content in ORG fruit was found in 'Golden Delicious', whereas differences in other cultivars were not significant. Targeted metabolomic profiling of multiple classes of phenolics confirmed the impact of the production system on the 'Golden Delicious' phenolic profile as higher levels of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, neo- and chlorogenic acids, phloridzin, procyanidin B2+B4, -3-O-glucoside and -3-O-galactoside of quercetin, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, and rutin being found in ORG fruit. The results obtained suggested that scab resistance influenced the phenolic biosynthesis in relation to the agricultural system. Sensorial evaluation indicated significantly better flavor (except for 'Topaz') and better appearance of IP fruit.

Bilberry and blueberry anthocyanins act as powerful intracellular antioxidants in mammalian cells.

Berry anthocyanins have pronounced health effects, even though they have a low bioavailability. The common mechanism underlying health protection is believed to relate to antioxidant activity. Berry extracts, chemically characterised for their phenolic content, were prepared from bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillusL.) and blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosumL.); the bilberry extract was further purified to obtain the anthocyanin fraction. The antioxidant activity of each extract was examined at the cellular level. For this purpose a specific assay, known as cellular antioxidant activity assay (CAA), was implemented in different cell lines: human colon cancer (Caco-2), human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2), human endothelial (EA.hy926) and rat vascular smooth muscle (A7r5). Here we show for the first time that anthocyanins had intracellular antioxidant activity if applied at very low concentrations (<1 µg/l; nM range), thereby providing a long-sought rationale for their health protecting effects in spite of their unfavorable pharmacokinetic properties.

Classification of grape berries according to diameter and total soluble solids to study the effect of light and temperature on methoxypyrazine, glutathione, and hydroxycinnamate evolution during ripening of Sauvignon blanc (Vitis vinifera L.).

Grape berries were classified according to diameter and total soluble solids (TSS) to study the effect of light and temperature on methoxypyrazines (MPs), glutathione (GSH), and hydroxycinnamates (HCAs) during the ripening of Sauvignon blanc. The light exposure of the fruiting zone was modified within leaf and lateral removal at the phenological stage berry of peppercorn size and no removal (control). In comparison to the control, the concentration of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IBMP) was below the limit of detection in leaf removal 2 weeks before harvest. Leaf removal had no significant influence on GSH and HCAs in the grape juice at harvest. Berry diameter significantly influenced the concentration of IBMP in the grape juice and did not influence the concentration of GSH and HCAs. At harvest, the concentrations of IBMP in grape juices of similar TSS in the control were 12.6 and 5.2 ng/L in 15.5 and 13.5 mm berry diameter classes, respectively. Furthermore, the study showed that berries of the same diameter were not at the same physiological ripening level (not the same TSS).

Phenolics in Slovenian bilberries ( Vaccinium myrtillus L.) and blueberries ( Vaccinium corymbosum L.).

Phenolics from bilberries ( Vaccinium myrtillus L.) sampled from seven different locations and highbush blueberries ( Vaccinium corymbosum L.) from one location in Slovenia were analyzed. In samples of both species 15 anthocyanins were identified by LC-MS/MS. Their contents were expressed as cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalents (C3GE); bilberries contained 1210.3 ± 111.5 mg C3GE/100 g fw and blueberries 212.4 ± 14.1 mg C3GE/100 g fw. Glycosides of delphinidin and cyanidin were predominant (488.5 vs 363.6 mg C3GE/100 g fw) in the bilberries and glycosides of malvidin (108.0 vs 100.8 mg C3GE/100 g fw) in the blueberries, whereas the contents of peonidin were lowest (74.5 vs 4.8 mg C3GE/100 g fw) in both berries. The contents of flavanols, flavonols, phenolic acids, and stilbenes were determined by LC-MS. For the first time, rutin was identified (bilberries, 0.2 ± 0.0 mg/100 g fw; blueberries, 3.1 ± 0.1 mg/100 g fw). Chlorogenic acid (as 3-caffeoylquinic acid) was the most abundant among the phenolic acids (23.1 ± 1.0 mg/100 g fw in bilberries and 70.0 ± 3.4 mg/100 g fw in blueberries). Statistical analysis shows that the content of 27 individual flavonoids, phenolic acids, and stilbenes can be used to identify the picking region of these Slovenian bilberries.

Determination of glutathione content in grape juice and wine by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection.

A modified preparation of sample was developed for the determination of glutathione content in grape juice and wine by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection, using on-line pre-column derivatization. Ice-cold deoxygenated methanol was used to deactivate the oxidation enzymes in juices or wines and keep the glutathione stable. The optimum recovery of glutathione content in grape juice and wine was obtained when either the sample of grape juice or wine was mixed in ice-cold deoxygenated methanol in the ratio 10:90 (v:v) and further diluted in sodium acetate buffer in the ratio 1:1 (v:v). The optimized method was validated for linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantification, precision and uncertainty. According to the validation data the method is appropriate for the determination of glutathione content in grape juice and wine. Glutathione contents in grape juices made from White Muscat grapes and Sauvignon Blanc wines were analysed. The average glutathione content in 28 young Sauvignon Blanc wines was 12.5 mg L(-1).

Expression of bilitranslocase in the vascular endothelium and its function as a flavonoid transporter.

AIMS: Ingestion of flavonoid-rich beverages acutely affects endothelial function, causing vasodilation. This effect might be dependent on flavonoid transport into the endothelium. We investigated flavonoid uptake into vascular endothelial cells and whether this was mediated by bilitranslocase (TC 2.A.65.1.1), a bilirubin-specific membrane carrier that also transports various dietary flavonoids. METHODS AND RESULTS: Human and rat aortic primary endothelial cells as well as Ea.hy 926 cells were found to express bilitranslocase, as assessed by immunocytochemistry and immunoblotting analysis using anti-sequence bilitranslocase antibodies targeting two distinct extracellular epitopes of the carrier. Bilitranslocase function was tested by measuring the rate of bromosulfophthalein (a standard bilitranslocase transport substrate) uptake into endothelial cells and was inhibited not only by bilitranslocase antibodies but also by quercetin (a flavonol). Similarly, uptake of both quercetin and malvidin 3-glucoside (an anthocyanin) were also found to be antibody-inhibited. Quercetin uptake into cells was inhibited by bilirubin, suggesting flavonoid uptake via a membrane pathway shared with bilirubin. CONCLUSION: The uptake of some flavonoids into the vascular endothelium occurs via the bilirubin-specific membrane transporter bilitranslocase. This offers new insights into the vascular effects of both flavonoids and bilirubin.

Acute cardioprotective and cardiotoxic effects of bilberry anthocyanins in ischemia-reperfusion injury: beyond concentration-dependent antioxidant activity.

Despite being reported to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, little is known about acute direct effects of bilberry anthocyanins on whole mammalian heart under ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) conditions. Bilberry anthocyanins were prepared from the ripe bilberries and analyzed using HPLC-DAD. Their antioxidant activity was evaluated by measuring the intrinsic free radical-scavenging capacity and by cellular antioxidant assay (CAA) on endothelial cells, where we quantified the intracellular capacity to inhibit the formation of peroxyl radicals. Experiments on the isolated rat hearts under I-R were carried out according to the Langendorff method. Perfusion with low concentrations of bilberry anthocyanins (0.01-1 mg/L) significantly attenuated the extent of I-R injury as evidenced by decreasing the release rate of LDH, increasing the postischemic coronary flow, and by decreasing the incidence and duration of reperfusion arrhythmias. High concentrations (5-50 mg/L) diminished cardioprotection and show cardiotoxic activity despite having their radical scavenging and intracellular antioxidant capabilities increased in a concentration-dependent manner. This study reveals the biphasic concentration-dependent bioactivity of bilberry anthocyanins under I-R, which results in strong cardioprotective activity in low concentrations and cardiotoxic activity in high concentrations.