Whole-genome sequencing facilitates patient-specific quantitative PCR-based minimal residual disease monitoring in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, neuroblastoma and Ewing sarcoma.

BACKGROUND: Minimal residual disease (MRD) measurement is a cornerstone of contemporary acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) treatment. The presence of immunoglobulin (Ig) and T cell receptor (TCR) gene recombinations in leukaemic clones allows widespread use of patient-specific, DNA-based MRD assays. In contrast, paediatric solid tumour MRD remains experimental and has focussed on generic assays targeting tumour-specific messenger RNA, methylated DNA or microRNA. METHODS: We examined the feasibility of using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data to design tumour-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based MRD tests (WGS-MRD) in 18 children with high-risk relapsed cancer, including ALL, high-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) and Ewing sarcoma (EWS) (n = 6 each). RESULTS: Sensitive WGS-MRD assays were generated for each patient and allowed quantitation of 1 tumour cell per 10-4 (0.01%)-10-5 (0.001%) mononuclear cells. In ALL, WGS-MRD and Ig/TCR-MRD were highly concordant. WGS-MRD assays also showed good concordance between quantitative PCR and droplet digital PCR formats. In serial clinical samples, WGS-MRD correlated with disease course. In solid tumours, WGS-MRD assays were more sensitive than RNA-MRD assays. CONCLUSIONS: WGS facilitated the development of patient-specific MRD tests in ALL, HR-NB and EWS with potential clinical utility in monitoring treatment response. WGS data could be used to design patient-specific MRD assays in a broad range of tumours.

Measurable residual disease analysis in paediatric acute lymphoblastic leukaemia patients with ABL-class fusions.

BACKGROUND: ABL-class fusions including NUP214-ABL1 and EBF1-PDGFRB occur in high risk acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) with gene expression patterns similar to BCR-ABL-positive ALL. Our aim was to evaluate new DNA-based measurable residual disease (MRD) tests detecting these fusions and IKZF1-deletions in comparison with conventional immunoglobulin/T-cell receptor (Ig/TCR) markers. METHODS: Precise genomic breakpoints were defined from targeted or whole genome next generation sequencing for ABL-fusions and BCR-ABL1. Quantitative PCR assays were designed and used to re-measure MRD in remission bone marrow samples previously tested using Ig/TCR markers. All MRD testing complied with EuroMRD guidelines. RESULTS: ABL-class patients had 46% 5year event-free survival and 79% 5year overall survival. All had sensitive fusion tests giving high concordance between Ig/TCR and ABL-class fusion results (21 patients, n = 257 samples, r2 = 0.9786, P < 0.0001) and Ig/TCR and IKZF1-deletion results (9 patients, n = 143 samples, r2 = 0.9661, P < 0.0001). In contrast, in BCR-ABL1 patients, Ig/TCR and BCR-ABL1 tests were discordant in 32% (40 patients, n = 346 samples, r2 = 0.4703, P < 0.0001) and IKZF1-deletion results were closer to Ig/TCR (25 patients, n = 176, r2 = 0.8631, P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: MRD monitoring based on patient-specific assays detecting gene fusions or recurrent assays for IKZF1-deletions is feasible and provides good alternatives to Ig/TCR tests to monitor MRD in ABL-class ALL.

CKLF and IL1B transcript levels at diagnosis are predictive of relapse in children with pre-B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

Disease relapse is the greatest cause of treatment failure in paediatric B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (B-ALL). Current risk stratifications fail to capture all patients at risk of relapse. Herein, we used a machine-learning approach to identify B-ALL blast-secreted factors that are associated with poor survival outcomes. Using this approach, we identified a two-gene expression signature (CKLF and IL1B) that allowed identification of high-risk patients at diagnosis. This two-gene expression signature enhances the predictive value of current at diagnosis or end-of-induction risk stratification suggesting the model can be applied continuously to help guide implementation of risk-adapted therapies.

Outcomes for Australian children with relapsed/refractory acute lymphoblastic leukaemia treated with blinatumomab.

We report on the Australian experience of blinatumomab for treatment of 24 children with relapsed/refractory precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (B-ALL) and high-risk genetics, resulting in a minimal residual disease (MRD) response rate of 58%, 2-year progression-free survival (PFS) of 39% and 2-year overall survival of 63%. In total, 83% (n = 20/24) proceeded to haematopoietic stem cell transplant, directly after blinatumomab (n = 12) or following additional salvage therapy (n = 8). Four patients successfully received CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy despite prior blinatumomab exposure. Inferior 2-year PFS was associated with MRD positivity (20%, n = 15) and in KMT2A-rearranged infants (15%, n = 9). Our findings highlight that not all children with relapsed/refractory B-ALL respond to blinatumomab and factors such as blast genotype may affect prognosis.

Optimization of a clofarabine-based drug combination regimen for the preclinical evaluation of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to improve the predictive power of patient-derived xenografts (PDXs, also known as mouse avatars) to more accurately reflect outcomes of clofarabine-based treatment in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) patients. PROCEDURE: Pharmacokinetic (PK) studies were conducted using clofarabine at 3.5 to 15 mg/kg in mice. PDXs were established from relapsed/refractory ALL patients who exhibited good or poor responses to clofarabine. PDX engraftment and response to clofarabine (either as a single agent or in combinations) were assessed based on stringent objective response measures modeled after the clinical setting. RESULTS: In naïve immune-deficient NSG mice, we determined that a clofarabine dose of 3.5 mg/kg resulted in systemic exposures equivalent to those achieved in pediatric ALL patients treated with clofarabine-based regimens. This dose was markedly lower than the doses of clofarabine used in previously reported preclinical studies (typically 30-60 mg/kg) and, when scheduled consistent with the clinical regimen (daily × 5), resulted in 34-fold lower clofarabine exposures. Using a well-tolerated clofarabine/etoposide/cyclophosphamide combination regimen, we then found that the responses of PDXs better reflected the clinical responses of the patients from whom the PDXs were derived. CONCLUSIONS: This study has identified an in vivo clofarabine treatment regimen that reflects the clinical responses of relapsed/refractory pediatric ALL patients. This regimen could be used prospectively to identify patients who might benefit from clofarabine-based treatment. Our findings are an important step toward individualizing prospective patient selection for the use of clofarabine in relapsed/refractory pediatric ALL patients and highlight the need for detailed PK evaluation in murine PDX models.

Monitoring of childhood ALL using BCR-ABL1 genomic breakpoints identifies a subgroup with CML-like biology.

We used the genomic breakpoint between BCR and ABL1 genes for the DNA-based monitoring of minimal residual disease (MRD) in 48 patients with childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Comparing the results with standard MRD monitoring based on immunoglobulin/T-cell receptor (Ig/TCR) gene rearrangements and with quantification of IKZF1 deletion, we observed very good correlation for the methods in a majority of patients; however, >20% of children (25% [8/32] with minor and 12.5% [1/8] with major-BCR-ABL1 variants in the consecutive cohorts) had significantly (>1 log) higher levels of BCR-ABL1 fusion than Ig/TCR rearrangements and/or IKZF1 deletion. We performed cell sorting of the diagnostic material and assessed the frequency of BCR-ABL1-positive cells in various hematopoietic subpopulations; 12% to 83% of non-ALL B lymphocytes, T cells, and/or myeloid cells harbored the BCR-ABL1 fusion in patients with discrepant MRD results. The multilineage involvement of the BCR-ABL1-positive clone demonstrates that in some patients diagnosed with BCR-ABL1-positive ALL, a multipotent hematopoietic progenitor is affected by the BCR-ABL1 fusion. These patients have BCR-ABL1-positive clonal hematopoiesis resembling a chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)-like disease manifesting in "lymphoid blast crisis." The biological heterogeneity of BCR-ABL1-positive ALL may impact the patient outcomes and optimal treatment (early stem cell transplantation vs long-term administration of tyrosine-kinase inhibitors) as well as on MRD testing. Therefore, we recommend further investigations on CML-like BCR-ABL1-positive ALL.

A risk score including microdeletions improves relapse prediction for standard and medium risk precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children.

To prevent relapse, high risk paediatric acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) is treated very intensively. However, most patients who eventually relapse have standard or medium risk ALL with low minimal residual disease (MRD) levels. We analysed recurrent microdeletions and other clinical prognostic factors in a cohort of 475 uniformly treated non-high risk precursor B-cell ALL patients with the aim of better predicting relapse and refining risk stratification. Lower relapse-free survival at 7 years (RFS) was associated with IKZF1 intragenic deletions (P < 0·0001); P2RY8-CRLF2 gene fusion (P < 0·0004); Day 33 MRD>5 × 10-5 (P < 0·0001) and High National Cancer Institute (NCI) risk (P < 0·0001). We created a predictive model based on a risk score (RS) for deletions, MRD and NCI risk, extending from an RS of 0 (RS0) for patients with no unfavourable factors to RS2 +  for patients with 2 or 3 high risk factors. RS0, RS1, and RS2 +  groups had RFS of 93%, 78% and 49%, respectively, and overall survival (OS) of 99%, 91% and 71%. The RS provided greater discrimination than MRD-based risk stratification into standard (89% RFS, 96% OS) and medium risk groups (79% RFS, 91% OS). We conclude that this RS may enable better early therapeutic stratification and thus improve cure rates for childhood ALL.

Integration of genetic and clinical risk factors improves prognostication in relapsed childhood B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Somatic genetic abnormalities are initiators and drivers of disease and have proven clinical utility at initial diagnosis. However, the genetic landscape and its clinical utility at relapse are less well understood and have not been studied comprehensively. We analyzed cytogenetic data from 427 children with relapsed B-cell precursor ALL treated on the international trial, ALLR3. Also we screened 238 patients with a marrow relapse for selected copy number alterations (CNAs) and mutations. Cytogenetic risk groups were predictive of outcome postrelapse and survival rates at 5 years for patients with good, intermediate-, and high-risk cytogenetics were 68%, 47%, and 26%, respectively (P < .001). TP53 alterations and NR3C1/BTG1 deletions were associated with a higher risk of progression: hazard ratio 2.36 (95% confidence interval, 1.51-3.70, P < .001) and 2.15 (1.32-3.48, P = .002). NRAS mutations were associated with an increased risk of progression among standard-risk patients with high hyperdiploidy: 3.17 (1.15-8.71, P = .026). Patients classified clinically as standard and high risk had distinct genetic profiles. The outcome of clinical standard-risk patients with high-risk cytogenetics was equivalent to clinical high-risk patients. Screening patients at relapse for key genetic abnormalities will enable the integration of genetic and clinical risk factors to improve patient stratification and outcome. This study is registered at www.clinicaltrials.org as #ISCRTN45724312.

Tumor suppressors BTG1 and IKZF1 cooperate during mouse leukemia development and increase relapse risk in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients.

Deletions and mutations affecting lymphoid transcription factor IKZF1 (IKAROS) are associated with an increased relapse risk and poor outcome in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia. However, additional genetic events may either enhance or negate the effects of IKZF1 deletions on prognosis. In a large discovery cohort of 533 childhood B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients, we observed that single-copy losses of BTG1 were significantly enriched in IKZF1-deleted B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (P=0.007). While BTG1 deletions alone had no impact on prognosis, the combined presence of BTG1 and IKZF1 deletions was associated with a significantly lower 5-year event-free survival (P=0.0003) and a higher 5-year cumulative incidence of relapse (P=0.005), when compared with IKZF1-deleted cases without BTG1 aberrations. In contrast, other copy number losses commonly observed in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia, such as CDKN2A/B, PAX5, EBF1 or RB1, did not affect the outcome of IKZF1-deleted acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients. To establish whether the combined loss of IKZF1 and BTG1 function cooperate in leukemogenesis, Btg1-deficient mice were crossed onto an Ikzf1 heterozygous background. We observed that loss of Btg1 increased the tumor incidence of Ikzf1+/- mice in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, murine B cells deficient for Btg1 and Ikzf1+/- displayed increased resistance to glucocorticoids, but not to other chemotherapeutic drugs. Together, our results identify BTG1 as a tumor suppressor in leukemia that, when deleted, strongly enhances the risk of relapse in IKZF1-deleted B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and augments the glucocorticoid resistance phenotype mediated by the loss of IKZF1 function.

Persistent MRD before and after allogeneic BMT predicts relapse in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

Minimal residual disease (MRD) during early chemotherapy is a powerful predictor of relapse in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) and is used in children to determine eligibility for allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in first (CR1) or later complete remission (CR2/CR3). Variables affecting HSCT outcome were analysed in 81 children from the ANZCHOG ALL8 trial. The major cause of treatment failure was relapse, with a cumulative incidence of relapse at 5 years (CIR) of 32% and treatment-related mortality of 8%. Leukaemia-free survival (LFS) and overall survival (OS) were similar for HSCT in CR1 (LFS 62%, OS 83%, n = 41) or CR2/CR3 (LFS 60%, OS 72%, n = 40). Patients achieving bone marrow MRD negativity pre-HSCT had better outcomes (LFS 83%, OS 92%) than those with persistent MRD pre-HSCT (LFS 41%, OS 64%, P < 0·0001) or post-HSCT (LFS 35%, OS 55%, P < 0·0001). Patients with B-other ALL had more relapses (CIR 50%, LFS 41%) than T-ALL and the main precursor-B subtypes including BCR-ABL1, KMT2A (MLL), ETV6-RUNX1 (TEL-AML1) and hyperdiploidy >50. A Cox multivariate regression model for LFS retained both B-other ALL subtype (hazard ratio 4·1, P = 0·0062) and MRD persistence post-HSCT (hazard ratio 3·9, P = 0·0070) as independent adverse prognostic variables. Persistent MRD could be used to direct post-HSCT therapy.

Correlation between a 10-color flow cytometric measurable residual disease (MRD) analysis and molecular MRD in adult B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Measurable residual disease (MRD) monitoring in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is an important predictive factor for patient outcome and treatment intensification. Molecular monitoring, particularly with quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) to measure immunoglobin heavy or kappa chain (Ig) or T-cell receptor (TCR) gene rearrangements, offers high sensitivity but accessibility is limited by expertise, cost, and turnaround time. Flow cytometric assays are cheaper and more widely available, and sensitivity is improved with multi-parameter flow cytometry at eight or more colors. METHODS: We developed a 10-color single tube flow cytometry assay. Samples were subject to bulk ammonium chloride lysis to maximize cell yields with a target of 1 × 106 events. Once normal maturation patterns were established, patient samples were analyzed in parallel to standard molecular monitoring. RESULTS: Flow cytometry was performed on 114 samples. An informative immunophenotype was identifiable in all 22 patients who had a diagnostic sample. MRD analysis was performed on 87 samples. The median lower limits of detection and quantification were 0.004% (range 0.0005%-0.028%) and 0.01% (range 0.001%-0.07%) respectively. Sixty-five samples had concurrent molecular MRD testing, with good correlation (r = 0.83, p < 0.001). Results were concordant in 52 samples, and discordant in 13 samples, including one case where impending relapse was detected by flow cytometry but not Ig/TCR qPCR. CONCLUSIONS: Our 10-color flow cytometric MRD assay provided adequate sensitivity and good correlation with molecular assays. This technique offers rapid and affordable testing in B-ALL patients, including cases where a suitable molecular assay cannot be developed or has reduced sensitivity.

Sensitive Measurement of Minimal Residual Disease in Blood by HAT-PCR.

PCR is widely used to measure minimal residual disease (MRD) in lymphoid neoplasms, but its sensitivity is limited. High Adenine/Thymine PCR and High Annealing Temperature PCR (HAT-PCR) is a modified PCR designed to minimize nonspecificity and hence increase sensitivity. It was evaluated in the laboratory and the clinic, using samples from 58 patients. Of these patients, 57 were adolescents or young adults who were participating in the Australasian Leukemia and Lymphoma Group ALL06 trial in which MRD was measured in blood principally by HAT-PCR and in marrow by conventional PCR. HAT-PCR produced significantly less nonspecificity than conventional PCR, and its limit of detection was <10-6 in 90% of patients. In 196 samples, an excellent correlation was found between blood and marrow MRD. Variable partitioning of leukemic cells between blood and marrow was observed. Measurement of MRD in blood by HAT-PCR was noninferior to measurement of MRD in marrow by conventional PCR, in terms of both detecting disease and predicting clinical outcome. At a median follow-up of 3 years and for MRD levels in blood at the end of consolidation treatment, an MRD level of >10-4 cells/L significantly predicted relapse and mortality, whereas undetectable MRD significantly predicted relapse-free survival and overall survival. HAT-PCR is a simple, quick, cheap and sensitive method for measurement of MRD, and its adoption for MRD in blood may be clinically useful.

An MRD-stratified pediatric protocol is as deliverable in adolescents and young adults as in children with ALL.

Pediatric regimens have improved outcomes in adolescent and young adult (AYA) acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). However, results remain inferior to children with ALL. The Australasian Leukaemia and Lymphoma Group (ALLG) ALL06 study (anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12611000814976) was designed to assess whether a pediatric ALL regimen (Australian and New Zealand Children's Haematology and Oncology Group [ANZCHOG] Study 8) could be administered to patients aged 15 to 39 years in a comparable time frame to children as assessed by the proportion of patients completing induction/consolidation and commencing the next phase of therapy (protocol M or high-risk [HR] treatment) by day 94. Minimal residual disease (MRD) response stratified patients to HR treatment and transplantation. From 2012 to 2018, a total of 86 patients were enrolled; 82 were eligible. Median age was 22 years (range, 16-38 years). Induction/consolidation was equally deliverable in ALL06 as in Study 8. In ALL06, 41.5% (95% confidence interval [CI], 30.7-52.9) commenced protocol M or HR therapy by day 94 vs 39.3% in Study 8 (P = .77). Median time to protocol M/HR treatment was 96 days (interquartile range, 87.5-103 days) in ALL06 vs 98 days in Study 8 (P = .80). Induction mortality was 3.6%. With a median follow-up of 44 months (1-96 months), estimated 3-year disease-free survival was 72.8% (95% CI, 62.8-82.7), and estimated 3-year overall survival was 74.9% (95% CI, 65.3-84.5). End induction/consolidation MRD negativity rate was 58.6%. Body mass index ≥30 kg/m2 and day 79 MRD positivity were associated with poorer disease-free survival and overall survival. Pediatric therapy was safe and as deliverable in AYA patients as in children with ALL. Intolerance of pediatric ALL induction/consolidation is not a major contributor to inferior outcomes in AYA ALL.

The application of RNA sequencing for the diagnosis and genomic classification of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common childhood malignancy, and implementation of risk-adapted therapy has been instrumental in the dramatic improvements in clinical outcomes. A key to risk-adapted therapies includes the identification of genomic features of individual tumors, including chromosome number (for hyper- and hypodiploidy) and gene fusions, notably ETV6-RUNX1, TCF3-PBX1, and BCR-ABL1 in B-cell ALL (B-ALL). RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) of large ALL cohorts has expanded the number of recurrent gene fusions recognized as drivers in ALL, and identification of these new entities will contribute to refining ALL risk stratification. We used RNA-seq on 126 ALL patients from our clinical service to test the utility of including RNA-seq in standard-of-care diagnostic pipelines to detect gene rearrangements and IKZF1 deletions. RNA-seq identified 86% of rearrangements detected by standard-of-care diagnostics. KMT2A (MLL) rearrangements, although usually identified, were the most commonly missed by RNA-seq as a result of low expression. RNA-seq identified rearrangements that were not detected by standard-of-care testing in 9 patients. These were found in patients who were not classifiable using standard molecular assessment. We developed an approach to detect the most common IKZF1 deletion from RNA-seq data and validated this using an RQ-PCR assay. We applied an expression classifier to identify Philadelphia chromosome-like B-ALL patients. T-ALL proved a rich source of novel gene fusions, which have clinical implications or provide insights into disease biology. Our experience shows that RNA-seq can be implemented within an individual clinical service to enhance the current molecular diagnostic risk classification of ALL.

Clinical significance of minimal residual disease at day 15 and at the end of therapy in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

Detection of minimal residual disease (MRD) after induction and consolidation therapy is highly predictive of outcome for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) and is used to identify patients at high risk of relapse in several current clinical trials. To evaluate the prognostic significance of MRD at other treatment phases, MRD was measured by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction on a selected group of 108 patients enrolled on the Australian and New Zealand Children's Cancer Study Group Study VII including 36 patients with a bone marrow or central nervous system relapse and 72 matched patients in first remission. MRD was prognostic of outcome at all five treatment phases tested: at day 15 (MRD > or = 5 x 10(-2), log rank P < 0.0001), day 35 (> or =1 x 10(-2), P = 0.0001), 4 months (> or =5 x 10(-4), P < 0.0001), 12 months (MRD > or = 1 x 10(-4), P = 0.006) and 24 months (MRD > or = 1 x 10(-4), P < 0.0001). Day 15 was the best early MRD time-point to differentiate between patients with high, intermediate and low risk of relapse. MRD testing at 12 and particularly at 24 months, detected molecular relapses in some patients up to 6 months before clinical relapse. This raised the question of whether a strategy of late monitoring and salvage therapy will improve outcome.

IKZF1 Deletions with COBL Breakpoints Are Not Driven by RAG-Mediated Recombination Events in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia.

IKZF1 deletion (ΔIKZF1) is an important predictor of relapse in both childhood and adult B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). Previously, we revealed that COBL is a hotspot for breakpoints in leukemia and could promote IKZF1 deletions. Through an international collaboration, we provide a detailed genetic and clinical picture of B-ALL with COBL rearrangements (COBL-r). Patients with B-ALL and IKZF1 deletion (n = 133) were included. IKZF1 ∆1-8 were associated with large alterations within chromosome 7: monosomy 7 (18%), isochromosome 7q (10%), 7p loss (19%), and interstitial deletions (53%). The latter included COBL-r, which were found in 12% of the IKZF1 ∆1-8 cohort. Patients with COBL-r are mostly classified as intermediate cytogenetic risk and frequently harbor ETV6, PAX5, CDKN2A/B deletions. Overall, 56% of breakpoints were located within COBL intron 5. Cryptic recombination signal sequence motifs were broadly distributed within the sequence of COBL, and no enrichment for the breakpoint cluster region was found. In summary, a diverse spectrum of alterations characterizes ΔIKZF1 and they also include deletion breakpoints within COBL. We confirmed that COBL is a hotspot associated with ΔIKZF1, but these rearrangements are not driven by RAG-mediated recombination.

Validation of the United Kingdom copy-number alteration classifier in 3239 children with B-cell precursor ALL.

Genetic abnormalities provide vital diagnostic and prognostic information in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and are increasingly used to assign patients to risk groups. We recently proposed a novel classifier based on the copy-number alteration (CNA) profile of the 8 most commonly deleted genes in B-cell precursor ALL. This classifier defined 3 CNA subgroups in consecutive UK trials and was able to discriminate patients with intermediate-risk cytogenetics. In this study, we sought to validate the United Kingdom ALL (UKALL)-CNA classifier and reevaluate the interaction with cytogenetic risk groups using individual patient data from 3239 cases collected from 12 groups within the International BFM Study Group. The classifier was validated and defined 3 risk groups with distinct event-free survival (EFS) rates: good (88%), intermediate (76%), and poor (68%) (P < .001). There was no evidence of heterogeneity, even within trials that used minimal residual disease to guide therapy. By integrating CNA and cytogenetic data, we replicated our original key observation that patients with intermediate-risk cytogenetics can be stratified into 2 prognostic subgroups. Group A had an EFS rate of 86% (similar to patients with good-risk cytogenetics), while group B patients had a significantly inferior rate (73%, P < .001). Finally, we revised the overall genetic classification by defining 4 risk groups with distinct EFS rates: very good (91%), good (81%), intermediate (73%), and poor (54%), P < .001. In conclusion, the UKALL-CNA classifier is a robust prognostic tool that can be deployed in different trial settings and used to refine established cytogenetic risk groups.

Targeted Next-Generation Sequencing for Detecting MLL Gene Fusions in Leukemia.

Mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) gene rearrangements characterize approximately 70% of infant and 10% of adult and therapy-related leukemia. Conventional clinical diagnostics, including cytogenetics and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) fail to detect MLL translocation partner genes (TPG) in many patients. Long-distance inverse (LDI)-PCR, the "gold standard" technique that is used to characterize MLL breakpoints, is laborious and requires a large input of genomic DNA (gDNA). To overcome the limitations of current techniques, a targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) approach that requires low RNA input was tested. Anchored multiplex PCR-based enrichment (AMP-E) was used to rapidly identify a broad range of MLL fusions in patient specimens. Libraries generated using Archer FusionPlex Heme and Myeloid panels were sequenced using the Illumina platform. Diagnostic specimens (n = 39) from pediatric leukemia patients were tested with AMP-E and validated by LDI-PCR. In concordance with LDI-PCR, the AMP-E method successfully identified TPGs without prior knowledge. AMP-E identified 10 different MLL fusions in the 39 samples. Only two specimens were discordant; AMP-E successfully identified a MLL-MLLT1 fusion where LDI-PCR had failed to determine the breakpoint, whereas a MLL-MLLT3 fusion was not detected by AMP-E due to low expression of the fusion transcript. Sensitivity assays demonstrated that AMP-E can detect MLL-AFF1 in MV4-11 cell dilutions of 10-7 and transcripts down to 0.005 copies/ng.Implications: This study demonstrates a NGS methodology with improved sensitivity compared with current diagnostic methods for MLL-rearranged leukemia. Furthermore, this assay rapidly and reliably identifies MLL partner genes and patient-specific fusion sequences that could be used for monitoring minimal residual disease. Mol Cancer Res; 16(2); 279-85. ©2017 AACR.