Bacteremia due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis or M. bovis, Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) among HIV- positive children and adults in Zambia.

BACKGROUND: Among adults with advanced HIV infection in developing countries, bacteremia due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is common and bacteremia due to M. bovis (bacille Calmette-Guérin; BCG) is rare. Comparable data are not available for children with HIV. OBJECTIVE: To compare the prevalence of bacteremia due to M. tuberculosis or M. bovis BCG in hospitalized children and adults with HIV infection in a developing country with a high prevalence of tuberculosis and HIV and > 95% BCG immunization coverage. DESIGN: Descriptive cross-sectional study. METHODS: Prospectively hospitalized patients in Lusaka, Zambia who were suspected to have HIV infection underwent phlebotomy for HIV ELISA, HIV viral load, and lysis-centrifugation blood culture for mycobacteria. Histories were obtained and patients were examined for BCG scars. Mycobacterial isolates were identified using DNA probes for MTB complex (MTBC), multiplex PCR and IS6110 typing. RESULTS: The median age of 387 HIV-positive children was 15 months; 98% were BCG immunized. The median age of 344 HIV-positive adults was 32 years; 44% were BCG immunized. Blood cultures were positive for mycobacteria in six children (2%) and 38 adults(11%) (P < 0.001). The six pediatric isolates included five MTBC (40% clustered) and one BCG. The 38 adult isolates included 36 MTBC (16% clustered) and two M. avium complex. CONCLUSION: Bacteremia due to MTB is less common among children than adults with advanced HIV infection in Zambia. Bacteremia due to M. bovis BCG is rare even among children with recent BCG immunization and symptomatic HIV infection.

The effects of BCG immunization and human immunodeficiency virus infection on dual skin test reactions to purified protein derivative and Mycobacterium avium sensitin among adults in Zambia.

SETTING: University hospital in Lusaka, Zambia. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of childhood bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) immunization and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection on dual skin test reactions to purified protein derivative (PPD) and Mycobacterium avium sensitin (MAS) in a developing country. DESIGN: Descriptive cross-sectional study. RESULTS: Dual skin testing was performed on 112 adults, 58 HIV-positive and 54 HIV-negative. Forty-seven (42%) of 112 had PPD reactions > or =10 mm and 52 (46%) had MAS reactions > or =10 mm. PPD reactions > or =10 mm were present in 30 (63%) of 48 BCG-positive subjects compared to 17 (27%) of 64 BCG-negative subjects (P<0.001). Nineteen (33%) of 58 PPD or MAS skin test positive subjects were PPD dominant, 15 (26%) were MAS dominant, and 24 (41%) were non-dominant. MAS dominant and non-dominant reactions were significantly reduced in HIV-positive subjects, and non-dominant reactions were increased in BCG-positive subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood BCG immunization is associated with PPD reactions > or =10 mm among adults. Reduced PPD reaction rates in HIV-positive adults appear to be due to a loss of BCG-induced PPD reactivity. Prior infection with M. avium complex is detectable in a significant proportion of adults in a developing country.

Sources of disseminated Mycobacterium avium infection in AIDS.

OBJECTIVES: To identify the sources of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection in AIDS. METHODS: HIV positive subjects with CD4 counts <100/mm(3) in Atlanta, Boston, New Hampshire and Finland were entered in a prospective cohort study. Subjects were interviewed about potential MAC exposures, had phlebotomy performed for determination of antibody to mycobacterial lipoarabinomannin and for culture. Patient-directed water samples were collected from places of residence, work and recreation. Patients were followed for the development of disseminated MAC. Univariate and multivariate risk factors for MAC were analyzed. RESULTS: Disseminated MAC was identified in 31 (9%) subjects. Significant risks in univariate analysis included prior Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) (hazard ratio 1.821), consumption of spring water (4.909), consumption of raw seafood (34.3), gastrointestinal endoscopy (2.894), and showering outside the home (0.388). PCP, showering and endoscopy remained significant in a Cox proportional hazards model. There was no association between M. avium colonization of home water and risk of MAC. In patients with CD4<25, median OD antibody levels to lipoarabinomannin at baseline were 0.054 among patients who did not develop MAC and 0.021 among patients who did develop MAC (P=0.077). CONCLUSIONS: MAC infection results from diverse and likely undetectable environmental and nosocomial exposures. Mycobacterial infection before HIV infection may confer protection against disseminated MAC in advanced AIDS.

Immunization of healthy adult subjects in the United States with inactivated Mycobacterium vaccae administered in a three-dose series.

Heat-killed Mycobacterium vaccae vaccine was administered in a three-dose intradermal schedule to 10 healthy adult volunteers at 0, 2, and 10 months. Local and systemic side effects were monitored and vaccine site reactions were measured and photographed at visits 2 days, 14 days, and 2 months after each dose. Reactions to skin tests with purified protein derivative (PPD) and Mycobacterium avium sensitin (MAS) and titers of antibody to arabinose lipoarabinomannin were determined at baseline and after each dose of vaccine. Lymphocyte proliferation responses to MAS were determined after the final dose of vaccine. Immunization was safe and well tolerated, with maximal induration (range, 6-25 mm) at 2 days. PPD skin test conversions did not occur. Seven subjects completed the three-dose schedule; preexisting immunologic responses to mycobacteria were boosted in three, and a new response was elicited in one. M. vaccae vaccine is safe and induces measurable immunologic responses to mycobacterial antigens in some healthy adults.

Randomised trial of intradermal Mycobacterium vaccae or intradermal hepatitis B immunisation in children with HIV infection.

This study assessed the safety of inactivated Mycobacterium vaccae as a candidate vaccine to prevent disseminated mycobacterial disease in children with HIV infection. 35 children ages 1-8 with CD4 counts > or =300/mm3 in New Hampshire, Boston and Chicago were randomised in a 2:1 schedule to receive a 3-dose series of intradermal M. vaccae vaccine (MV) or hepatitis B vaccine (HBV) at 2-month intervals. Immunisation was safe and well tolerated; 2-day median vaccine site in duration was 5 mm in MV recipients and 0 mm in HBV recipients (p < 0.001). There were no significantly different changes in viral load or CD4 count between the two vaccine groups. No PPD skin test conversions occurred after immunisation. MV is safe and well tolerated and deserves further evaluation as a vaccine to prevent mycobacterial disease in HIV-infected children.

Safety and immunogenicity of a five-dose series of inactivated Mycobacterium vaccae vaccination for the prevention of HIV-associated tuberculosis.

Five doses of inactivated Mycobacterium vaccae vaccine were administered intradermally to 22 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients (11 bacille Calmette-Guérin [BCG]-positive and 11 BCG-negative) in Zambia whose CD4 lymphocyte counts were >/=200 cells/mm(3). HIV viral load and lymphocyte proliferation responses were compared for vaccine recipients and 22 HIV-infected control patients (11 BCG-positive and 11 BCG-negative). Immunization was safe and well tolerated in all patients, and induration at the vaccine site decreased from dose 1 to dose 5. A transient decrease in HIV viral load was observed in BCG-positive vaccine recipients after dose 3 but not after subsequent doses. Median lymphocyte stimulation indices to M. vaccae were 6.0 in vaccine recipients and 2.3 in control patients (P<.001). Stimulation indices were >/=3.0 in 19 vaccine recipients (86%) and 7 control patients (32%; P=.001). A 5-dose series of vaccination with inactivated M. vaccae is safe in HIV-infected patients and induces lymphocyte proliferation responses to the vaccine antigen. M. vaccae vaccine is a candidate for the prevention of tuberculosis in HIV infection.

Isolation of Mycobacterium avium complex from water in the United States, Finland, Zaire, and Kenya.

Disseminated infection with organisms of the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) is a common complication of AIDS in the United States and other developing countries, but it is rare or absent in sub-Saharan Africa. To assess the comparative likelihood of exposure to MAC in these geographic areas, we used a standard protocol to culture 91 water samples from environmental sites and piped water supply systems in the United States, Finland, Zaire, and Kenya. MAC was isolated from all geographic areas and from 22 of 91 (24%) samples. Isolation rates were 13 of 47 (28%) for environmental samples and 9 of 44 (20%) for water supply samples. Overall isolation rates were 18 of 52 (35%) samples in the United States and Finland, whereas they were 4 of 39 (10%) samples in Zaire and Kenya (P = 0.015). MAC isolation rates from water supply systems were 8 of 25 (32%) samples in the United States and Finland and 1 of 19 (5%) samples in Zaire and Kenya (P = 0.056). MAC was isolated from hospital water in the United States and Finland but not in hospital water in Zaire and Kenya. Serovar determinations showed that six of eight isolates from the United States were serovar 4 or 8. One MAC isolate from Zaire was identified as an "X" mycobacterium. These data suggest that exposure to MAC in water is likely in diverse areas of the world, but that the likelihood of human exposure to the organism in water may be slightly less in sub-Saharan Africa than in developed countries in the Northern Hemisphere.

PIP: Between March 1990 and February 1992, microbiologists collected 91 water samples from various environmental sites (lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, harbors, marshes, and standing water) and from piped municipal and private water supply systems to determine the likelihood of human exposure to Mycobacterium avian complex (MAC) in New Hampshire and Boston in the US, Finland, Kenya, and Zaire. They wanted to examine the international distribution of MAC to determine whether the observation of AIDS patents in Africa not having MAC infection is association with differences in the environmental distribution of MAC. Overall isolation rates for environmental samples and for water supply samples stood at 28% and 20%, respectively. MAC isolation rates for all samples in the 2 developed countries were significantly higher than they were in the 2 Sub-Saharan African countries (35% vs. 10%; p = .015). The rates for water supply systems were higher in the US and Finland than they were in Kenya and Zaire (32% vs. 5%; p = .056). None of the water supply samples from hospitals in Kenya and Zaire tested positive for MAC, while about 20% in the US and 50% in Finland did. Serovars 4 and 8 of M. avian, which have been linked to infection in AIDS patients, accounted for 75% of the environmental M. avium isolates in the US. An X mycobacterium was found in an MAC isolate from Zaire. These findings indicate that the probability of human exposure to MAC in water is less than Sub-Saharan Africa than it is in developed countries in the northern hemisphere.