Based on an analysis of mode of action, styrene-induced mouse lung tumors are not a human cancer concern.

Based on 13 chronic studies, styrene exposure causes lung tumors in mice, but no tumor increases in other organs in mice or rats. Extensive research into the mode of action demonstrates the key events and human relevance. Key events are: metabolism of styrene by CYP2F2 in mouse lung club cells to ring-oxidized metabolites; changes in gene expression for metabolism of lipids and lipoproteins, cell cycle and mitotic M-M/G1 phases; cytotoxicity and mitogenesis in club cells; and progression to preneoplastic/neoplastic lesions in lung. Although styrene-7,8-oxide (SO) is a common genotoxic styrene metabolite in in vitro studies, the data clearly demonstrate that SO is not the proximate toxicant and that styrene does not induce a genotoxic mode of action. Based on complete attenuation of styrene short-term and chronic toxicity in CYP2F2 knockout mice and similar attenuation in CYP2F1 (humanized) transgenic mice, limited metabolism of styrene in human lung by CYP2F1, 2 + orders of magnitude lower SO levels in human lung compared to mouse lung, and lack of styrene-related increase in lung cancer in humans, styrene does not present a risk of cancer to humans.

Strain-related differences in mouse lung gene expression over a two-year period of inhalation exposure to styrene: Relevance to human risk assessment.

Both CD-1 and C57BL/6 wildtype (C57BL/6-WT) mice show equivalent short-term lung toxicity from exposures to styrene, while long-term tumor responses are greater in CD-1 mice. We analyzed lung gene expression from styrene exposures lasting from 1-day to 2-years in male mice from these two strains, including a Cyp2f2(-/-) knockout (C57BL/6-KO) and a Cyp2F1/2A13/2B6 transgenic mouse (C57BL/6-TG). With short term exposures (1-day to 1-week), CD-1 and C57BL/6-WT mice had thousands of differentially expressed genes (DEGs), consistent with changes in pathways for cell proliferation, cellular lipid metabolism, DNA-replication and inflammation. C57BL/6-WT mice responded within a single day; CD-1 mice required several days of exposure. The numbers of exposure related DEGs were greatly reduced at longer times (4-weeks to 2-years) with enrichment only for biological oxidations in C57BL/6-WT and metabolism of lipids and lipoproteins in CD-1. Gene expression results indicate a non-genotoxic, mouse specific mode of action for short-term styrene responses related to activation of nuclear receptor signaling and cell proliferation. Greater tumor susceptibility in CD-1 mice correlated with the presence of the Pas1 loci, differential Cytochrome P450 gene expression, down-regulation of Nr4a, and greater inflammatory pathway activation. Very few exposure-related responses occurred at any time in C57BL/6-KO or -TG mice indicating that neither the short term nor long term responses of styrene in mice are relevant endpoints for assessing human risks.

Assessing molecular initiating events (MIEs), key events (KEs) and modulating factors (MFs) for styrene responses in mouse lungs using whole genome gene expression profiling following 1-day and multi-week exposures.

Styrene increased lung tumors in mice at chronic inhalation exposures of 20ppm and greater. MIEs, KEs and MFs were examined using gene expression in three strains of male mice (the parental C57BL/6 strain, a CYP2F2(-/-) knock out and a CYP2F2(-/-) transgenic containing human CYP2F1, 2A13 and 2B6). Exposures were for 1-day and 1, 4 and 26weeks. After 1-day exposures at 1, 5, 10, 20, 40 and 120ppm significant increases in differentially expressed genes (DEGs) occurred only in parental strain lungs where there was already an increase in DEGs at 5ppm and then many thousands of DEGs by 120ppm. Enrichment for 1-day and 1-week exposures included cell cycle, mitotic M-M/G1 phases, DNA-synthesis and metabolism of lipids and lipoproteins pathways. The numbers of DEGs decreased steadily over time with no DEGs meeting both statistical significance and fold-change criteria at 26weeks. At 4 and 26weeks, some key transcription factors (TFs) - Nr1d1, Nr1d2, Dbp, Tef, Hlf, Per3, Per2 and Bhlhe40 - were upregulated (|FC|>1.5), while others - Npas, Arntl, Nfil3, Nr4a1, Nr4a2, and Nr4a3 - were down-regulated. At all times, consistent changes in gene expression only occurred in the parental strain. Our results support a MIE for styrene of direct mitogenicity from mouse-specific CYP2F2-mediated metabolites activating Nr4a signaling. Longer-term MFs include down-regulation of Nr4a genes and shifts in both circadian clock TFs and other TFs, linking circadian clock to cellular metabolism. We found no gene expression changes indicative of cytotoxicity or activation of p53-mediated DNA-damage pathways.

Editor's Highlight: Complete Attenuation of Mouse Lung Cell Proliferation and Tumorigenicity in CYP2F2 Knockout and CYP2F1 Humanized Mice Exposed to Inhaled Styrene for up to 2 Years Supports a Lack of Human Relevance.

Styrene is a mouse-specific lung carcinogen, and short-term mode of action studies have demonstrated that cytotoxicity and/or cell proliferation, and genomic changes are dependent on CYP2F2 metabolism. The current study examined histopathology, cell proliferation, and genomic changes in CD-1, C57BL/6 (WT), CYP2F2(-/-) (KO), and CYP2F2(-/-) (CYP2F1, 2B6, 2A13-transgene) (TG; humanized) mice following exposure for up to 104 weeks to 0- or 120-ppm styrene vapor. Five mice per treatment group were sacrificed at 1, 26, 52, and 78 weeks. Additional 50 mice per treatment group were followed until death or 104 weeks of exposure. Cytotoxicity was present in the terminal bronchioles of some CD-1 and WT mice exposed to styrene, but not in KO or TG mice. Hyperplasia in the terminal bronchioles was present in CD-1 and WT mice exposed to styrene, but not in KO or TG mice. Increased cell proliferation, measured by KI-67 staining, occurred in CD-1 and WT mice exposed to styrene for 1 week, but not after 26, 52, or 78 weeks, nor in KO or TG mice. Styrene increased the incidence of bronchioloalveolar adenomas and carcinomas in CD-1 mice. No increase in lung tumors was found in WT despite clear evidence of lung toxicity, or, KO or TG mice. The absence of preneoplastic lesions and tumorigenicity in KO and TG mice indicates that mouse-specific CYP2F2 metabolism is responsible for both the short-term and chronic toxicity and tumorigenicity of styrene, and activation of styrene by CYP2F2 is a rodent MOA that is neither quantitatively or qualitatively relevant to humans.