Genome sequence of the Brown Norway rat yields insights into mammalian evolution.

The laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus) is an indispensable tool in experimental medicine and drug development, having made inestimable contributions to human health. We report here the genome sequence of the Brown Norway (BN) rat strain. The sequence represents a high-quality 'draft' covering over 90% of the genome. The BN rat sequence is the third complete mammalian genome to be deciphered, and three-way comparisons with the human and mouse genomes resolve details of mammalian evolution. This first comprehensive analysis includes genes and proteins and their relation to human disease, repeated sequences, comparative genome-wide studies of mammalian orthologous chromosomal regions and rearrangement breakpoints, reconstruction of ancestral karyotypes and the events leading to existing species, rates of variation, and lineage-specific and lineage-independent evolutionary events such as expansion of gene families, orthology relations and protein evolution.

Identification of potential cell-surface proteins in Candida albicans and investigation of the role of a putative cell-surface glycosidase in adhesion and virulence.

Cell-surface proteins are attractive targets for the development of novel antifungals as they are more accessible to drugs than are intracellular targets. By using a computational biology approach, we identified 180 potential cell-surface proteins in Candida albicans, including the known cell-surface adhesin Als1 and other cell-surface antigens, such as Pra1 and Csa1. Six proteins (named Csf1-6 for cell-surface factors) were selected for further biological characterization. First, we verified that the selected CSF genes are expressed in the yeast and/or hyphal form and then we investigated the effect of the loss of each CSF gene on cell-wall integrity, filamentation, adhesion to mammalian cells and virulence. As a result, we identified Csf4, a putative glycosidase with an apparent orthologue in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Utr2), as an important factor for cell-wall integrity and maintenance. Interestingly, deletion of CSF4 also resulted in a defect in filamentation, a reduction in adherence to mammalian cells in an in vitro adhesion assay, and a prolongation of survival in an immunocompetent mouse model of disseminated candidiasis. A delay in colonization of key organs (e.g. kidney) was also observed, which is consistent with a reduction in virulence of the csf4-deletion strain. These data indicate a key role for extracellular glycosidases in fungal pathogenesis and represent a new site for therapeutic intervention to cure and prevent fungal disease.

Evolutionary conservation and selection of human disease gene orthologs in the rat and mouse genomes.

BACKGROUND: Model organisms have contributed substantially to our understanding of the etiology of human disease as well as having assisted with the development of new treatment modalities. The availability of the human, mouse and, most recently, the rat genome sequences now permit the comprehensive investigation of the rodent orthologs of genes associated with human disease. Here, we investigate whether human disease genes differ significantly from their rodent orthologs with respect to their overall levels of conservation and their rates of evolutionary change. RESULTS: Human disease genes are unevenly distributed among human chromosomes and are highly represented (99.5%) among human-rodent ortholog sets. Differences are revealed in evolutionary conservation and selection between different categories of human disease genes. Although selection appears not to have greatly discriminated between disease and non-disease genes, synonymous substitution rates are significantly higher for disease genes. In neurological and malformation syndrome disease systems, associated genes have evolved slowly whereas genes of the immune, hematological and pulmonary disease systems have changed more rapidly. Amino-acid substitutions associated with human inherited disease occur at sites that are more highly conserved than the average; nevertheless, 15 substituting amino acids associated with human disease were identified as wild-type amino acids in the rat. Rodent orthologs of human trinucleotide repeat-expansion disease genes were found to contain substantially fewer of such repeats. Six human genes that share the same characteristics as triplet repeat-expansion disease-associated genes were identified; although four of these genes are expressed in the brain, none is currently known to be associated with disease. CONCLUSIONS: Most human disease genes have been retained in rodent genomes. Synonymous nucleotide substitutions occur at a higher rate in disease genes, a finding that may reflect increased mutation rates in the chromosomal regions in which disease genes are found. Rodent orthologs associated with neurological function exhibit the greatest evolutionary conservation; this suggests that rodent models of human neurological disease are likely to most faithfully represent human disease processes. However, with regard to neurological triplet repeat expansion-associated human disease genes, the contraction, relative to human, of rodent trinucleotide repeats suggests that rodent loci may not achieve a 'critical repeat threshold' necessary to undergo spontaneous pathological repeat expansions. The identification of six genes in this study that have multiple characteristics associated with repeat expansion-disease genes raises the possibility that not all human loci capable of facilitating neurological disease by repeat expansion have as yet been identified.