The Strong African American Families Program: a cluster-randomized prevention trial of long-term effects and a mediational model.

The Strong African American Families Program, a universal preventive intervention to deter alcohol use among rural African American adolescents, was evaluated in a cluster-randomized prevention trial. This 7-week family skills training program is based on a contextual model in which intervention effects on youth protective factors lead to changes in alcohol use. African American 11-year-olds and their primary caregivers from 9 rural communities (N = 332 families) were randomly selected for study participation. Communities were randomized to prevention and control conditions. Intent-to-treat analyses indicated that fewer prevention than control adolescents initiated alcohol use; those who did evinced slower increases in use over time. Intervention-induced changes in youth protective factors mediated the effect of group assignment on long-term changes in use.

Smoking onset in adolescence: a person-centered analysis with time-varying predictors.

Predictions from smoking-specific versus contextual models of smoking onset were tested with data from a 4-wave sample with 1,364 adolescents. Predictor variables were derived from stress-coping theory, social influence theory, and problem-behavior theory. In addition to groups of abstainers and experimenters, cluster analysis of smoking data indicated 3 groups who showed onset either in 7th grade (early onset), 9th grade (intermediate onset), or 10th grade (late onset). Almost all study variables discriminated the smoking groups from the abstainers. The onset groups were discriminated by Group X Time interactions showing differential changes in predictors (increases in risk factors and declines in protective factors), which occurred just prior to onset. The results generally support a contextual model of the onset process.

The role of self-control in early escalation of substance use: a time-varying analysis.

This research tested predictions about the role of temperament and self-control in early substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana). A sample of 1,526 participants was assessed in 6th grade (mean age = 11.5 years) and followed with yearly assessments through 9th grade. Latent growth models showed temperament dimensions were related to early substance use, and their effects were mediated through generalized self-control ability. Time-varying effects indicated rate of growth in substance use was higher among participants who showed increases in poor self-control and lower among participants who showed increases in good self-control. Results in self-report data were corroborated by independent teacher ratings. Findings are discussed with reference to epigenetic models of protection and vulnerability.

Moderators of the relation between substance use level and problems: test of a self-regulation model in middle adolescence.

The authors tested predictions, derived from a self-regulation model, about variables moderating the relationship between level of substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) and problems associated with use. Data were from two independent studies of adolescents, with mean ages of 15.4 and 15.5 years (Ns = 1,699 and 1,225). Factor analysis indicated correlated dimensions of control problems and conduct problems. Protective moderation was found for variables indexing good self-control; risk-enhancing moderation was found for variables indexing poor self-control. These effects were generally independent of deviance-prone attitudes and externalizing symptomatology. Multiple-group structural modeling indicated moderation occurred for paths from life stress and coping motives and for paths from level to control and conduct problems. Moderation effects were also found for parental variables, peer variables, and academic competence.

Buffering effect of religiosity for adolescent substance use.

This research examined the hypothesis that religiosity buffers the impact of life stress on adolescent substance use. Data were from a sample of 1,182 participants surveyed on 4 occasions between 7th grade (mean age = 12.4 years) and 10th grade. Religiosity was indexed by Jessor's Value on Religion Scale (R. Jessor & S. L. Jessor, 1977). Zero-order correlations showed religiosity inversely related to alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use. Significant Life Events x Religiosity buffer interactions were found in cross-sectional analyses for tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. A latent growth analysis showed that religiosity reduced the impact of life stress on initial level of substance use and on rate of growth in substance use over time. Implications for further research on religiosity and substance use are discussed.

Role of parent support and peer support in adolescent substance use: a test of mediated effects.

This research tested comparative effects of parent and peer support on adolescent substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) with data from 2 assessments of a multiethnic sample of 1,826 adolescents, mean age 12.3 years. Multiple regression analyses indicated that parental support was inversely related to substance use and that peer support was positively related to substance use, as a suppression effect. Structural modeling analyses indicated that effects of support were mediated through pathways involving good self-control, poor self-control, and risk-taking tendency; parent and peer support had different patterns of relations to these mediators. The mediators had pathways to substance use through positive and negative recent events and through peer affiliations. Effects for gender and ethnicity were also noted. Mechanisms of operation for parent and peer support are discussed.

Family communication and religiosity related to substance use and sexual behavior in early adolescence: a test for pathways through self-control and prototype perceptions.

This research tested predictions about pathways to substance use and sexual behavior with a community sample of 297 African American adolescents (M age: 13.0 years). Structural modeling indicated that parent-adolescent communication had a path to unfavorable prototypes of substance users; quality of parent-adolescent relationship had paths to good self-control, higher resistance efficacy, and unfavorable prototypes of sexually active teens; and religiosity had inverse direct effects to both substance use and sexual behavior. Self-control constructs had paths to prototypes of abstainers, whereas risk taking had paths to prototypes of drug and sex engagers and direct effects to outcomes. Prototypes had paths to outcomes primarily through resistance efficacy and peer affiliations. Effects were also found for gender, parental education, and temperament characteristics. Implications for self-control theory and prevention research are discussed.

Context and cognitions: environmental risk, social influence, and adolescent substance use.

This study examined the cognitions thought to mediate the impact of context on adolescent substance use and also the extent to which context moderates the relations between these cognitions and use. Risk cognitions and behaviors were assessed in a panel of 746 African American adolescents (M age 10.5 at Wave 1, 12.2 at Wave 2). Results indicated that adolescents living in high-risk neighborhoods were more inclined toward substance use and more likely to be using at Wave 2. These context effects were mediated by the adolescents' risk cognitions: their risk images, willingness to use, and intentions to use. Also, context moderated the relation between willingness and use (the relation was stronger in high-risk neighborhoods) but it did not moderate the intentions to use relation.

Temperament and adolescent substance use: a transactional analysis of emerging self-control.

Presented is a conceptual framework linking the construct of temperament with environmental factors that covary with the onset and escalation of substance use. We propose that transactions between temperament characteristics of the child in family and peer contexts influence the development of self-control ability, a mediating factor for onset and possible transition to abuse in later adolescence. Risk-promoting dimensions may influence the emergence of self-control by amplifying relationship processes that detract from competence development. Emergence of good self-control can serve as a resilience factor and is linked with health-promoting cognitions. We also suggest that temperament and self-control moderate links between parenting, peer associations, and substance use. Implications of the transactional model for clinical intervention and research are discussed.