Modulation of lymphocyte function with inhibitory CD2: loss of NK and NKT cells.

Analysis of the NK cell developmental pathway suggests that CD2 expression may be important in regulating NK maturation. To test this hypothesis, we developed mice containing only an inhibitory CD2 molecule by linking the extracellular domain of CD2 to an intracellular immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) motif. Mice containing the CD2 Tg(ITIM) transgene, introduced into a CD2 KO background, have no morphologically detectable lymph nodes, although development of the thymus appears normal. In addition, these mice had major loss of both NK and NKT subsets in peripheral organs, while T and B cell frequencies were intact. Expression of CD2 was low on T cells and lacking on B cells and functional defects were observed in these populations. NKT cells expressing CD4 were absent, while the CD8+ and double negative NKT cells were retained. Small subsets of NK cells were detected but expression of CD2 on these cells was very low or absent, and their maturation was impaired. Based on the phenotype described here, we believe that these mice represent a unique model to study lymphoid organ and lymphocyte development.

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand-mediated apoptosis is an important endogenous mechanism for resistance to liver metastases in murine renal cancer.

Recent reports have suggested that the death ligand tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) may partially limit the formation of hepatic metastases of a variety of mouse tumors, and the major source of TRAIL in the liver was shown to be local natural killer cells. We isolated a clone (R331) of the murine renal cancer cell line Renca that was strikingly more sensitive to both Fas and TRAIL death receptor-mediated apoptosis in vitro. R331 grew in tissue culture in vitro at a rate similar to that of the parental Renca cell line but formed larger and more numerous colonies than parental Renca in soft agar. After s.c. implantation, R331 tumors progressed more rapidly than parental Renca tumors. However, R331 formed far fewer lung and liver metastases in wild-type (WT) BALB/c mice. Administration of antibodies that neutralized TRAIL dramatically increased the number of R331 liver metastases. Furthermore, numbers of R331 liver metastases were much greater in TRAIL(-/-) than in WT BALB/c mice. In contrast, no difference was seen in numbers of lung metastases when comparing TRAIL(-/-) and WT mice, suggesting that the antitumor effects of TRAIL in vivo were compartment specific. Transfection of cellular Fas-associated death domain-like interleukin-1beta-converting enzyme inhibitory protein into R331 increased the numbers of liver metastases in BALB/c mice by up to 10-fold, indicating that local TRAIL in the liver was directly mediating tumor cell apoptosis. These organ-specific differences in the endogenous levels of death ligands may apply different selective pressures on the development of liver or lung metastases. Consequently, the efficacy of TRAIL therapy may vary depending on the location of the tumor metastases.

Antigen presented by tumors in vivo determines the nature of CD8+ T-cell cytotoxicity.

The biological relevance of the perforin and Fas ligand (FasL) cytolytic pathways of CD8(+) T lymphocytes (CTL) for cancer immunotherapy is controversial. We investigated the importance of these pathways in a murine renal cell carcinoma expressing influenza viral hemagglutinin as a defined surrogate antigen (Renca-HA). Following Renca-HA injection, all FasL-dysfunctional FasL(gld/gld) mice (n = 54) died from Renca-HA tumors by day 62. By contrast, perforin(-/-) (51%; n = 45) and Fas(lpr/lpr) (55%; n = 51) mice remained tumor-free at day 360. Blocking FasL in vivo inhibited tumor rejection in these mice. Moreover, established Renca-HA tumors were cleared more efficiently by adoptively transferred HA(518-526)-specific T-cell receptor-transgenic CTL using FasL rather than perforin. Strikingly, a range of mouse tumor cells presenting low concentrations of immunogenic peptide were all preferentially lysed by the FasL but not the Pfp-mediated effector pathway of CTL, whereas at higher peptide concentrations, the preference in effector pathway usage by CTL was lost. Interestingly, a number of human renal cancer lines were also susceptible to FasL-mediated cytotoxicity. Therefore, the FasL cytolytic pathway may be particularly important for eradicating Fas-sensitive tumors presenting low levels of MHC class I-associated antigens following adoptive T-cell therapy.

In vivo regulation of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by NK cells: alteration of primary adaptive responses.

Innate immune responses provide the host with its first line of defense against infections. Signals generated by subsets of lymphocytes, including NK cells, NKT cells, and APC during this early host response determine the nature of downstream adaptive immune responses. In the present study, we have examined the role of innate NK cells in an autoimmune model through the use of primary immunization with the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide to induce experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Our studies have shown that in vivo depletion of NK cells can affect the adaptive immune responses, because NK cells were found to regulate the degree of clinical paralysis and to alter immune adaptive responses to the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide. The requirement for NK cells was reflected by changes in the T cell responses and diminished clinical disease seen in mice treated with anti-NK1.1, anti-asialo GM1, and selected Ly49 subtype-depleted mice. In addition to alteration in T cell responses, the maturational status of dendritic cells in lymph nodes was altered both quantitatively and qualitatively. Finally, examination of TCR Vbeta usage of the brain lymphocytes from EAE mice indicated a spectra-type change in receptor expression in NK- depleted mice as compared with non-NK-depleted EAE mice. These findings further establish a recently postulated link between NK cells and the generation of autoreactive T cells.

Treating metastatic solid tumors with bortezomib and a tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor agonist antibody.

BACKGROUND: Resistance of tumors to cell death signals poses a complex clinical problem. We explored the therapeutic potential and in vivo toxicity of a combination of bortezomib, a proteasome inhibitor, and MD5-1, a tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) receptor (DR5) agonist monoclonal antibody, in mouse carcinomas. METHODS; Mice bearing Renca-FLAG (renal) or 4T1 (mammary) tumors were treated with bortezomib and/or MD5-1 and examined for lung metastases (Renca-FLAG: n = 93; 4T1: n = 40) or monitored for survival (Renca-FLAG: n = 143). Toxicity was assessed by histopathology and hematology. Viability and apoptotic signaling in Renca-FLAG and 4T1 cells treated with bortezomib alone or in combination with TRAIL were analyzed using 3-[4,5-dimethyiazol-2-yl-5]-[3-carboxymethyloxyphenyl]-2-[4-sulfophenyl]-2H tetrazolium assay and by measuring mitochondrial membrane depolarization and caspase-8 and caspase-3 activation. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: Bortezomib (20 nM) sensitized Renca-FLAG and 4T1 cells to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis (mean percent decrease in numbers of viable cells, bortezomib + TRAIL vs TRAIL: Renca-FLAG, 95% vs 34%, difference = 61%, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 52% to 69%, P < .001; 4T1, 85% vs 20%, difference = 65%, 95% CI = 62% to 69%, P < .001). Sensitization involved activation of caspase-8 and caspase-3 but not mitochondrial membrane depolarization, suggesting an amplified signaling of the extrinsic cell death pathway. Treatment with bortezomib and MD5-1 reduced lung metastases in mice carrying Renca and 4T1 tumors (mean number of metastases, bortezomib + MD5-1 vs MD5-1: Renca-FLAG, 1 vs 8, difference = 7, 95% CI = 5 to 9, P < .001; 4T1, 1 vs 12, difference = 11, 95% CI = 9 to 12, P < .001) and increased median survival of mice bearing Renca-FLAG tumors (bortezomib + MD5-1 vs bortezomib + control isotype antibody: 22 of 30 [73%] were still alive at day 180 vs median survival of 42 days [95% CI = 41 to 44 days, P < .001]) in the absence of obvious toxicity. CONCLUSION: Bortezomib combined with DR5 agonist monoclonal antibody may be a useful treatment for metastatic solid tumors.

In vivo retroviral gene transfer by direct intrafemoral injection results in correction of the SCID phenotype in Jak3 knock-out animals.

Efficient retroviral gene transfer to pluripotential hematopoietic stem cells (PHSCs) requires ex vivo culture in multiple hematopoietic growth factors (HGFs) to promote cell division. While treatment of PHSCs with HGF can render stem cells viable targets for retroviral infection, HGFs can promote differentiation, loss of self-renewal potential, and affect the homing/engraftment capacity of PHSCs. To avoid the negative impacts observed with ex vivo transduction protocols, we developed a murine model for in vivo retroviral infection by direct intrafemoral injection (DII), thus abolishing the need for removal of cells from their native microenvironment and the signals necessary to maintain their unique physiology. Using this approach we have demonstrated in vivo retroviral gene transfer to colony-forming units-c (CFU-c), short-term reconstituting cells, and PHSCs. Moreover, direct intrafemoral injection of Jak3 knock-out mice with retroviral particles encoding the Jak3 gene resulted in reconstitution of normally deficient lymphocyte populations concomitant with improved immune function. In addition, DII can be used to target the delivery of other gene therapy vectors including adenoviral vectors to bone marrow cells in vivo. Taken together, these results demonstrate that in vivo retroviral gene transfer by direct intrafemoral injection may be a viable alternative to current ex vivo gene transfer approaches.