Is reading prosody related to reading comprehension? A meta-analysis.

We examined the relation between reading prosody and reading comprehension, using a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the strength of the relation and to understand whether the strength of the relation varies by prosody feature (adult-like contour, F0 sentence-final declination, grammatical pauses, ungrammatical pauses, prosody scale), students' developmental phase of reading skill as examined by grade level, and orthographic depth. A total of 35 studies (K = 98; N = 9,349; Grades 1-9, 8 languages) met inclusion criteria. Overall a moderate relation (.51) was found between reading prosody and reading comprehension. Furthermore, the strength varied by prosody feature such that the relation was stronger for prosody rating scale than for pitch indicators such as adult-like contour and F0 sentence-final declination. However, grade and orthographic depth were not significant moderators. These results suggest that the relation between reading prosody and reading comprehension is not unitary and should consider specific aspects of reading prosody.

Crosslinguistic Transfer of Higher Order Cognitive Skills and Their Roles in Writing for English-Spanish Dual Language Learners.

We investigated the dimensionality and relations between L1 and L2 writing skills in narrative and informational genres, and higher order cognitive skills-inference, perspective taking, and comprehension monitoring-for Spanish-English dual language learners in primary grades. Dimensions of written composition and higher order cognitive skills were examined, comparing nine alternative models. Data from 317 dual language learners in Grades 1 and 2 were used in confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. For the dimensionality of written composition, a unidimensional model, where writing was characterized as a single underlying construct across languages (Spanish and English) and genres (narrative & opinion), fit the data best. With regard to the dimensionality of higher order cognitive skills, data supported a bifactor model with (a) a general factor that captures common variance across languages and across inference, perspective taking, and comprehension monitoring skills and (b) specific factors by language (Spanish and English). The higher order cognition general factor was fairly strongly related to writing quality (.59), and the relation remained even after accounting for sex, poverty status, grade level, English learner status, school, and biliterate status. These relations were similar for students in English immersion program and Spanish-English dual immersion programs. These results indicate potential cross-language transfer of higher order cognitive skills, and the roles of higher order cognitions in written composition for Spanish-English dual language learners.

Are Written Syntax Features Related to Writing Quality? An Examination of Spanish and English Compositions by Bilingual Children.

PURPOSE: There is limited research on the writing of young Spanish-English bilinguals and their writing in both languages. In the current study, we addressed whether written syntax features differed by language (English and Spanish) and varied as a function of grade level, English learner status, and instructional program (dual or English immersion). We also examined whether Spanish and English syntax features were related cross-linguistically and related to writing quality within languages and whether these relations to writing quality were moderated by grade level, English learner status, and instructional program. METHOD: We examined written syntax features of Spanish and English essays by simultaneous and emergent bilinguals in Grades 1, 2, and 3 in either Spanish-English dual immersion or English immersion instruction in the United States (N = 278). Essays were scored for quality and evaluated for mean length of T-units, number of verbs, number of noun agreement words, and number of subject agreement words accurately conjugated. RESULTS: Written syntax features significantly differed by language and varied as a function of grade level, English learner status, and instructional program. Grades 2 and 3 wrote longer utterances, more verbs, and greater noun agreement accuracy than Grade 1. Syntax features were related to writing quality within languages, but Spanish relations were weaker for English learners than non-English learners and for dual immersion students than English immersion students. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest written syntax features may be useful for evaluation of English-Spanish simultaneous and emergent bilinguals' writing. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25927366.