Remodelling of cardiac sympathetic re-innervation with thoracic spinal cord stimulation improves left ventricular function in a porcine model of heart failure.

AIMS: Thoracic spinal cord stimulation (SCS) has been shown to improve left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) in heart failure (HF). Nevertheless, the optimal duration (intermittent vs. continuous) of stimulation and the mechanisms of action remain unclear. METHODS AND RESULTS: We performed chronic thoracic SCS at the level of T1-T3 (50 Hz, pulse width 0.2 ms) in 30 adult pigs with HF induced by myocardial infarction and rapid ventricular pacing for 4 weeks. All the animals were treated with daily oral metoprolol succinate (25 mg) plus ramipril (2.5 mg), and randomized to a control group (n = 10), intermittent SCS (4 h ×3, n = 10) or continuous SCS (24 h, n = 10) for 10 weeks. Serial measurements of LVEF and +dP/dt and serum levels of norepinephrine and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) were measured. After sacrifice, immunohistological studies of myocardial sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve sprouting and innervation were performed. Echocardiogram revealed a significant increase in LVEF and +dP/dt at 10 weeks in both the intermittent and continuous SCS group compared with controls (P < 0.05). In both SCS groups, there was diffuse sympathetic nerve sprouting over the infarct, peri-infarct, and normal regions compared with only the peri-infarct and infarct regions in the control group. In addition, sympathetic innervation at the peri-infarct and infarct regions was increased following SCS, but decreased in the control group. Myocardium norepinephrine spillover and serum BNP at 10 weeks was significantly decreased only in the continuous SCS group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In a porcine model of HF, SCS induces significant remodelling of cardiac sympathetic innervation over the peri-infarct and infarct regions and is associated with improved LV function and reduced myocardial norepinephrine spillover.

Discovery of Aficamten (CK-274), a Next-Generation Cardiac Myosin Inhibitor for the Treatment of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.

Hypercontractility of the cardiac sarcomere may be essential for the underlying pathological hypertrophy and fibrosis in genetic hypertrophic cardiomyopathies. Aficamten (CK-274) is a novel cardiac myosin inhibitor that was discovered from the optimization of indoline compound 1. The important advancement of the optimization was discovery of an Indane analogue (12) with a less restrictive structure-activity relationship that allowed for the rapid improvement of drug-like properties. Aficamten was designed to provide a predicted human half-life (t1/2) appropriate for once a day (qd) dosing, to reach steady state within two weeks, to have no substantial cytochrome P450 induction or inhibition, and to have a wide therapeutic window in vivo with a clear pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship. In a phase I clinical trial, aficamten demonstrated a human t1/2 similar to predictions and was able to reach steady state concentration within the desired two-week window.

Growth hormone exerts acute vascular effects independent of systemic or muscle insulin-like growth factor I.

CONTEXT: Endothelial dysfunction is common in patients with GH deficiency who are at increased risk for premature cardiovascular death. GH regulates vascular tone and reactivity in humans. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to explore the mechanisms underlying the GH's acute vascular effects. DESIGN AND STUDY SETTING: There were 10 healthy, lean and young, volunteers studied after an overnight fast. GH was infused systemically for 6 h at 0.06 microg/kg.min. Biopsy of the vastus lateralis muscle was done in seven subjects before and after GH infusion. Human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) were incubated with GH in vitro. RESULTS: GH infusion increased plasma GH to 32.9 +/- 1.5 ng/ml and forearm blood flow by 66% (P < 0.001). GH infusion did not significantly change plasma IGF-I concentrations, muscle IGF-I mRNA expression, and muscle Akt phosphorylation, suggesting a lack of IGF-I action in muscle. Because it was reported that GH exerts an acute vascular effect via a nitric oxide (NO)-dependent mechanism, we performed additional in vitro experiments using HAECs. HAECs express abundant GH receptors. Incubating HAECs with GH at 30 ng/ml for 3 or 6 h did not alter endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) protein content but time dependently increased the phosphorylation and activity of eNOS, thus demonstrating a direct effect of GH on endothelial cells. CONCLUSIONS: GH exerts an acute vascular effect independent of both systemic and local IGF-I production, and this effect is likely via direct action on GH receptors and eNOS in the vascular endothelium.

Glucocorticoids differentially modulate insulin-mediated protein and glycogen synthetic signaling downstream of protein kinase B in rat myocardium.

Insulin and protein kinase B (or Akt) play critical roles in cardiomyocytic growth and survival. High concentrations of glucocorticoids antagonize insulin's action. To examine whether endogenous glucocorticoids modulate insulin's effect on Akt signaling in the protein and glycogen synthetic pathways in myocardium, we studied three groups of rats (n = 12 each) 4 d after either a bilateral adrenalectomy (ADX), ADX with physiological stress dose dexamethasone treatment (ADX + DEX), or a sham operation. Rats received either a saline infusion or a 3 mU/kg.min euglycemic insulin clamp for 3 h. ADX had no effect on myocardial Akt or GSK-3 [glycogen synthase (GS) kinase 3] phosphorylation, but it decreased the phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) and ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70(S6K)) (P < 0.003 for both). Insulin enhanced the phosphorylation of Akt (P < 0.04), 4E-BP1 (P < 0.002), and p70(S6K) (P < 0.0001) in ADX, but not in sham rats. Dexamethasone restored the levels of 4E-BP1 and p70(S6K) phosphorylation and abrogated the insulin-stimulated Akt, 4E-BP1, and p70(S6K) phosphorylation. ADX rats had higher GS activity (P = 0.058) and lower glycogen content (P < 0.0001) than sham rats. GSK-3 phosphorylation after insulin infusion was greater in ADX rats. Insulin did not alter GS activity. Although insulin did not change the glycogen content in sham or ADX rats, it increased glycogen content by approximately 50% in ADX + DEX rats (P < 0.02). We conclude that endogenous glucocorticoids differentially modulate the regulation of Akt-4E-BP1/p70(S6K) and Akt-GSK-3-GS signaling pathways in heart by physiologic hyperinsulinemia over a range from deficiency to physiological stress concentrations.

Zucker Diabetic Fatty rats exhibit hypercoagulability and accelerated thrombus formation in the Arterio-Venous shunt model of thrombosis.

INTRODUCTION: Diabetes is a significant risk factor for thrombosis. The present study aimed at assessing coagulability, platelet reactivity, and thrombogenicity of the diabetic female Zucker Diabetic Fatty (ZDF) rat model and its relevance in studying antithrombotic mechanisms. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The basal coagulant state in ZDF rats was evaluated by clotting times, thromboelastography, and thrombin generation assay. A 14-day treatment with dapagliflozin in ZDF rats was pursued to investigate if glycemic control can improve coagulability. Thrombus formation in the Arterio-Venous (A-V) shunt model and the FeCl3-induced arterial thrombosis model was studied, with the antithrombotic effect of apixaban in the former model further investigated. RESULTS: ZDF rats exhibited significantly shortened clotting times, enhanced thrombin generation, and decreased fibrinolysis at baseline. Effective glycemic control achieved with dapagliflozin did not improve any of these parameters. ZDF rats displayed accelerated thrombus formation and were amenable to apixaban treatment in the A-V shunt model albeit with less sensitivity than normal rats. ZDF rats exhibited less platelet aggregation in response to ADP, collagen and PAR-4, and attenuated thrombotic response in the FeCl3 model. CONCLUSIONS: ZDF rats are at a chronic hypercoagulable and hypofibrinolytic state yet with compromised platelet reactivity. They display accelerated and attenuated thrombosis in the A-V shunt and FeCl3 model of thrombosis, respectively. Results shed new light on the pathophysiology of the ZDF rat model and illustrate its potential value in translational research on anticoagulant agents in diabetics. Caution needs to be exerted in utilizing this model in assessing antiplatelet mechanisms in diabetes-associated atherothrombosis.

Activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase abolishes insulin-mediated myocardial protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury contributes significantly to morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes. Insulin decreases myocardial infarct size in animals and the rate of apoptosis in cultured cells. Ischemia-reperfusion activates p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which regulates cellular apoptosis. To examine whether p38 MAPK affects insulin's cardioprotection against ischemia-reperfusion injury, we studied overnight-fasted adult male rats by use of an in vivo rat model of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion. A euglycemic clamp (3 mU.min(-1).kg(-1)) was begun either 10 min before ischemia (InsulinBI), 5 min before reperfusion (InsulinBR), or 30 min after the onset of reperfusion (InsulinAR), and continued until the end of the study. Compared with saline control, insulin decreased the infarct size in both InsulinBI (P < 0.001) and InsulinBR (P < 0.02) rats but not in InsulinAR rats. The ischemic area showed markedly increased phosphorylation of p38 MAPK compared with the nonischemic area in saline animals. Acute activation of p38 MAPK with anisomycin (2 mg/kg iv 10 min before ischemia) had no effect on infarct size in saline rats. However, it completely abolished insulin's protective effect in InsulinBI and InsulinBR rats. Activation of p38 MAPK by anisomycin was associated with marked and persistent elevation in IRS-1 serine phosphorylation. Treatment of animals with SB-239063, a potent and specific inhibitor of p38 MAPK, 10 min before reperfusion enabled insulin-mediated myocardial protection in InsulinAR rats. We conclude that insulin protects myocardium against ischemia-reperfusion injury when given prior to ischemia or reperfusion, and activation of p38 MAPK abolishes insulin's cardioprotective effect.

Activation of glycogen synthase in myocardium induced by intermittent hypoxia is much lower in fasted than in fed rats.

Obstructive sleep apnea is characterized by intermittent obstruction of the upper airway, which leads to intermittent hypoxia. Myocardial glycogen is a major energy resource for heart during hypoxia. Previous studies have demonstrated that intermittent hypoxia rapidly degrades myocardial glycogen and activates glycogen synthase (GS). However, the underlying mechanisms remain undefined. Because sleep apnea/intermittent hypoxia usually happens at night, whether intermittent hypoxia leads to GS activation in the postabsorptive state is not known. In the present study, male adult rats were studied after either an overnight fast or ad libitum feeding with or without intermittent ventilatory arrest (3 90-s periods at 10-min intervals). Hearts were quickly excised and freeze-clamped. Intermittent hypoxia induced a significant decrease in myocardial glycogen content in fed rats and stimulated GS in both fasted and fed rats. However, the portion of GS in the active form increased by approximately 38% in fasted rats compared with a larger, approximately 130% increase in fed rats. The basal G-6-P content was comparable in fasted and fed animals and increased approximately threefold after hypoxia. The basal phosphorylation states of Akt and GSK-3beta and the activity of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) were comparable between fasted and fed control rats. Hypoxia significantly increased Akt phosphorylation and PP1 activity only in fed rats. In contrast, hypoxia did not induce significant change in GSK-3beta phosphorylation in either fasted or fed rats. We conclude that hypoxia activates GS in fed rat myocardium through a combination of rapid glycogenolysis, elevated local G-6-P content, and increased PP1 activity, and fasting attenuates this action independent of local G-6-P content.

Unlike insulin, amino acids stimulate p70S6K but not GSK-3 or glycogen synthase in human skeletal muscle.

Insulin stimulates muscle glucose disposal via both glycolysis and glycogen synthesis. Insulin activates glycogen synthase (GS) in skeletal muscle by phosphorylating PKB (or Akt), which in turn phosphorylates and inactivates glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3), with subsequent activation of GS. A rapamycin-sensitive pathway, most likely acting via ribosomal 70-kDa protein S6 kinase (p70(S6K)), has also been implicated in the regulation of GSK-3 and GS by insulin. Amino acids potently stimulate p70(S6K), and recent studies on cultured muscle cells suggest that amino acids also inactivate GSK-3 and/or activate GS via activating p70(S6K). To assess the physiological relevance of these findings to normal human physiology, we compared the effects of amino acids and insulin on whole body glucose disposal, p70(S6K), and GSK-3 phosphorylation, and on the activity of GS in vivo in skeletal muscle of 24 healthy human volunteers. After an overnight fast, subjects received intravenously either a mixed amino acid solution (1.26 micromol.kg(-1).min(-1) x 6 h, n = 9), a physiological dose of insulin (1 mU.kg(-1).min(-1) euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp x 2 h, n = 6), or a pharmacological dose of insulin (20 mU.kg(-1).min(-1) euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp x 2 h, n = 9). Whole body glucose disposal rates were assessed by calculating the steady-state glucose infusion rates, and vastus lateralis muscle was biopsied before and at the end of the infusion. Both amino acid infusion and physiological hyperinsulinemia enhanced p70(S6K) phosphorylation without affecting GSK-3 phosphorylation, but only physiological hyperinsulinemia also increased whole body glucose disposal and GS activity. In contrast, a pharmacological dose of insulin significantly increased whole body glucose disposal, p70(S6K), GSK-3 phosphorylation, and GS activity. We conclude that amino acids at physiological concentrations mediate p70(S6K) but, unlike insulin, do not regulate GSK-3 and GS phosphorylation/activity in human skeletal muscle.