Nanoprobe-based molecular imaging for tumor stratification.

The responses of patients to tumor therapies vary due to tumor heterogeneity. Tumor stratification has been attracting increasing attention for accurately distinguishing between responders to treatment and non-responders. Nanoprobes with unique physical and chemical properties have great potential for patient stratification. This review begins by describing the features and design principles of nanoprobes that can visualize specific cell types and biomarkers and release inflammatory factors during or before tumor treatment. Then, we focus on the recent advancements in using nanoprobes to stratify various therapeutic modalities, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy (RT), photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), chemodynamic therapy (CDT), ferroptosis, and immunotherapy. The main challenges and perspectives of nanoprobes in cancer stratification are also discussed to facilitate probe development and clinical applications.

Validity of the modified versions of SARC-F+EBM for sarcopenia screening and diagnosis in China: the PPLSS study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: It is recommended by Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia to early identify people at risk for sarcopenia using simple screening tools like SARC-F. The modified version SARC-F+EBM showed higher diagnostic performance. However, this cut-off value of body mass index (BMI) remained uncertain to be used in Chinese population. In this study, we used appropriate BMI recommended for Chinese older population and further modified SARC-F+EBM by combining calf circumference. METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN: Diagnostic tests were performed and the receiver operating characteristics analyses were conducted between the SARC-F, SARC-F+EBM (cut-off of BMI: ≤ 21 kg/m2), SARC-F+EBM (CN) (cut-off of BMI: ≤ 22 kg/m2), SARC-CalF and SARC-CalF+EBM (CN) (cut-off of BMI: ≤ 22 kg/m2) in 1660 community-dwelling participants aged ≥ 65 years from China. RESULTS: The participants had an average age of 71.7±5.1 years, of which 56.8% were women. All the modified models could enhance the areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of original SARC-F (all p<0.001). The SARC-F+EBM (CN) also showed a significantly higher sensitivity of 47.4% (p<0.001) and an AUC of 0.809 (p=0.005) than SARC-F+EBM. SARC-CalF+EBM (CN) was validated to be of great diagnostic value of the highest AUC of 0.88 among these sarcopenia screening tools, including SARC-F, SARC-CalF and SARC-F+EBM (CN) (all p<0.001). Using this study population as a reference, the optimal cut-off value of SARC-CalF+EBM (CN) is ≥12 points, with a sensitivity of 79.3% and a specificity of 80.7%. CONCLUSIONS: The SARC-F+EBM (CN) and SARC-CalF+EBM (CN) could enhance the diagnostic performance of SARC-F and SARC-F+EBM and are suitable sarcopenia screening tools for Chinese population.

Biomimetic Nanovesicle with Mitochondria-Synthesized Sonosensitizer and Mitophagy Inhibition for Cancer Sono-Immunotherapy.

Mitochondria are crucial for both sonodynamic therapy and antitumor immunity. However, how to accurately damage mitochondria and meanwhile prevent the mitophagy and immune checkpoint inhibition is still a great challenge. Herein, hexyl 5-aminolevulinate hydrochloride (HAL) and 3-methyladenine (3MA) are loaded into the tumor cell-derived microparticle (X-MP), which can direct the target delivery of the prepared HAL/3MA@X-MP to the tumor cells. HAL induces the confined biosynthesis and accumulation of sonosensitizer PpIX in mitochondria, leading to the localized generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon ultrasound irradiation and, thus, the efficient mitochondrial damage. Meanwhile, 3MA not only inhibits mitophagy but also down-regulates the PD-L1 expression, promoting the immunogenic cell death (ICD) while blocking the immune checkpoint recognition. The smart synergism of precise mitochondrial damage, mitophagy inhibition and antitumor immunity results in potent therapeutic efficacy without obvious side effects.

Does Endovascular Thrombectomy(ET) plus tirofiban benefit stroke patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Ischemic stroke is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Endovascular thrombectomy (ET) has been shown to prevent disability in a proportion of patients. The use of tirofiban in patients undergoing ET after acute stroke has resulted in improved patient function and reduced mortality to some extent. In this systematic review and meta-analysis of the current period, an overview of the most recent studies on the potential efficacy of using tirofiban to help acute stroke patients improve function and reduce mortality was provided. METHODS: In this meta-analysis, we explore the safety and efficacy of ET combined with tirofiban in patients with acute stroke. We searched the PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and The Cochrane Library database from the construction of the library to the present relevant RCTs/non-RCTs. The following key words were used for finding relevant studies from the databases"tirofiban""thrombectomy"" Stroke"" balloon angioplasty""stenting". RESULTS: Total of 14 trials with 4366 individuals enrolled were included in the Meta-analysis including 2732(62.6) who received ET alone and 1634(37.4 %) who received tirofiban plus ET. The primary outcome of 90-day functional independence (modified Rankin scale (mRS) score≤2) was 42.2 % (1043/2473) in the ET alone group vs. 46.2 % (684/1480) in the tirofiban with ET group (risk ratio (RR), 1.10 [95 % CI, 1.02-1.18]; P=0.02),mortality at 90 days (RR, 0.86 [95 % CI, 0.76-0.98]; P = 0.02). There is no significant between-group differences were found in excellent outcome (mRS score ≤1) (RR, 1.08 [95 % CI, 0.95-1.23]; P = 0.22), symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage (RR, 1.11 [95 % CI, 0.92-1.34]; P = 0.27). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the use of ET combined with tirofiban in patients with acute stroke is safe and has the potential to reduce mortality and improve functional independence at 90 days.

Fused-Ring Pyrrole-Based Near-Infrared Emissive Organic RTP Material for Persistent Afterglow Bioimaging.

Organic near-infrared room temperature phosphorescence (RTP) materials offer remarkable advantages in bioimaging due to their characteristic time scales and background noise elimination. However, developing near-infrared RTP materials for deep tissue imaging still faces challenges since the small band gap may increase the non-radiative decay, resulting in weak emission and short phosphorescence lifetime. In this study, fused-ring pyrrole-based structures were employed as the guest molecules for the construction of long wavelength emissive RTP materials. Compared to the decrease of the singlet energy level, the triplet energy level showed a more effectively decrease with the increase of the conjugation of the substituent groups. Moreover, the sufficient conjugation of fused ring structures in the guest molecule suppresses the non-radiative decay of triplet excitons. Therefore, a near-infrared RTP material (764 nm) was achieved for deep penetration bioimaging. Tumor cell membrane is used to coat RTP nanoparticles (NPs) to avoid decreasing the RTP performance compared to traditional coating by amphiphilic surfactants. RTP NPs with tumor-targeting properties show favorable phosphorescent properties, superior stability, and excellent biocompatibility. These NPs are applied for time-resolved luminescence imaging to eliminate background interference with excellent tissue penetration. This study provides a practical solution to prepare long-wavelength and long-lifetime organic RTP materials and their applications in bioimaging.

Deep-learning based broadband reflection reduction metasurface.

Reflection reduction metasurface (RRM) has been drawing much attention due to its potential application in stealth technology. However, the traditional RRM is designed mainly based on trial-and-error approaches, which is time-consuming and leads to inefficiency. Here, we report the design of a broadband RRM based on deep-learning methodology. On one hand, we construct a forward prediction network that can forecast the polarization conversion ratio (PCR) of the metasurface in a millisecond, demonstrating a higher efficiency than traditional simulation tools. On the other hand, we construct an inverse network to immediately derive the structure parameters once a target PCR spectrum is given. Thus, an intelligent design methodology of broadband polarization converters has been established. When the polarization conversion units are arranged in chessboard layout with 0/1 form, a broadband RRM is achieved. The experimental results show that the relative bandwidth reaches 116% (reflection<-10 dB) and 107.4% (reflection<-15 dB), which demonstrates a great advantage in bandwidth compared with the previous designs.

Phytochemical Engineered Bacterial Outer Membrane Vesicles for Photodynamic Effects Promoted Immunotherapy.

Cancer vaccines are emerging as an attractive modality for tumor immunotherapy. However, their practical application is seriously impeded by the complex fabrication and unsatisfactory outcomes. Herein, we construct bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs)-based in situ cancer vaccine with phytochemical features for photodynamic effects-promoted immunotherapy. By simply fusing thylakoid membranes with OMVs, bacteria-plant hybrid vesicles (BPNs) are prepared. After systemic administration, BPNs can target tumor tissues and stimulate the activation of immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs). The photodynamic effects derived from thylakoid lead to the disruption of local tumors and then the release of tumor-associated antigens that are effectively presented by DCs, inducing remarkable tumor-specific CD8+T cell responses. Moreover, BPNs can efficiently ameliorate the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and further boost immune responses. Therefore, both tumor development and metastasis can be efficiently prevented. This work provides a novel idea for developing a versatile membrane-based hybrid system for highly efficient tumor treatment.

Monitoring the Cascade of Tumor-specific Immune Response in vivo via Chemoenzymatic Proximity Labeling.

Monitoring the highly dynamic and complex immune response remains a great challenge owing to the lack of reliable and specific approaches. Here, we develop a strategy to monitor the cascade of tumor immune response through the cooperation of pore-forming alginate gel with chemoenzymatic proximity-labeling. A macroporous gel containing tumor-associated antigens, adjuvants, and pro-inflammatory cytokines is utilized to recruit endogenous DCs and enhance their maturation in vivo. The mature DCs are then modified with GDP-fucose-fucosyltransferase (GDP-Fuc-Fuct) via the self-catalysis of fucosyltransferase (Fuct). Following the migration of the obtained Fuct-DCs to the draining lymph nodes (dLNs), the molecular recognition mediated interaction of DCs and T cells leads to the successful decoration of T cells with GDP-Fuc-azide through the Fuct catalyzed proximity-labeling. Therefore, the activated tumor-specific T cells in dLNs and tumors can be identified through bioorthogonal labeling, opening up a new avenue for studying the immune mechanism of tumors in situ.

Impaired robust interhemispheric function integration of depressive brain from REST-meta-MDD database in China.

BACKGROUND: Recently, functional homotopy (FH) architecture, defined as robust functional connectivity (FC) between homotopic regions, has been frequently reported to be altered in MDD patients (MDDs) but with divergent locations. METHODS: In this study, we obtained resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (R-fMRI) data from 1004 MDDs (mean age, 33.88 years; age range, 18-60 years) and 898 matched healthy controls (HCs) from an aggregated dataset from 20 centers in China. We focused on interhemispheric function integration in MDDs and its correlation with clinical characteristics using voxel-mirrored homotopic connectivity (VMHC) devised to inquire about FH patterns. RESULTS: As compared with HCs, MDDs showed decreased VMHC in visual, motor, somatosensory, limbic, angular gyrus, and cerebellum, particularly in posterior cingulate gyrus/precuneus (PCC/PCu) (false discovery rate [FDR] q < 0.002, z = -7.07). Further analysis observed that the reduction in SMG and insula was more prominent with age, of which SMG reflected such age-related change in males instead of females. Besides, the reduction in MTG was found to be a male-special abnormal pattern in MDDs. VMHC alterations were markedly related to episode type and illness severity. The higher Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score, the more apparent VMHC reduction in the primary visual cortex. First-episode MDDs revealed stronger VMHC reduction in PCu relative to recurrent MDDs. CONCLUSIONS: We confirmed a significant VMHC reduction in MDDs in broad areas, especially in PCC/PCu. This reduction was affected by gender, age, episode type, and illness severity. These findings suggest that the depressive brain tends to disconnect information exchange across hemispheres.

Single-Virus Tracking: From Imaging Methodologies to Virological Applications.

Uncovering the mechanisms of virus infection and assembly is crucial for preventing the spread of viruses and treating viral disease. The technique of single-virus tracking (SVT), also known as single-virus tracing, allows one to follow individual viruses at different parts of their life cycle and thereby provides dynamic insights into fundamental processes of viruses occurring in live cells. SVT is typically based on fluorescence imaging and reveals insights into previously unreported infection mechanisms. In this review article, we provide the readers a broad overview of the SVT technique. We first summarize recent advances in SVT, from the choice of fluorescent labels and labeling strategies to imaging implementation and analytical methodologies. We then describe representative applications in detail to elucidate how SVT serves as a valuable tool in virological research. Finally, we present our perspectives regarding the future possibilities and challenges of SVT.

Reduced default mode network functional connectivity in patients with recurrent major depressive disorder.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is common and disabling, but its neuropathophysiology remains unclear. Most studies of functional brain networks in MDD have had limited statistical power and data analysis approaches have varied widely. The REST-meta-MDD Project of resting-state fMRI (R-fMRI) addresses these issues. Twenty-five research groups in China established the REST-meta-MDD Consortium by contributing R-fMRI data from 1,300 patients with MDD and 1,128 normal controls (NCs). Data were preprocessed locally with a standardized protocol before aggregated group analyses. We focused on functional connectivity (FC) within the default mode network (DMN), frequently reported to be increased in MDD. Instead, we found decreased DMN FC when we compared 848 patients with MDD to 794 NCs from 17 sites after data exclusion. We found FC reduction only in recurrent MDD, not in first-episode drug-naïve MDD. Decreased DMN FC was associated with medication usage but not with MDD duration. DMN FC was also positively related to symptom severity but only in recurrent MDD. Exploratory analyses also revealed alterations in FC of visual, sensory-motor, and dorsal attention networks in MDD. We confirmed the key role of DMN in MDD but found reduced rather than increased FC within the DMN. Future studies should test whether decreased DMN FC mediates response to treatment. All R-fMRI indices of data contributed by the REST-meta-MDD consortium are being shared publicly via the R-fMRI Maps Project.

Cell-Membrane-Based Biomimetic Systems with Bioorthogonal Functionalities.

During the past decade, there was a fast development of cell-based biomimetic systems, which are commonly derived from cell membranes, cell vesicles, or living cells. Such systems have unique and inherent bioinspired features originating from their parent biological systems. In particular, they are capable of (i) prolonging blood circulation time, (ii) avoiding immune response, (iii) targeting desired sites, (iv) providing antigens in cancer immunotherapy, and (v) loading and delivering therapeutic or imaging agents. Thus, these biomimetic systems are promising as prevention, detection, diagnosis, and therapeutic modalities. Though promising, these cell-based biomimetic systems are still far from wide application. One of the important reasons is the inevitable difficulty in their further efficient and precise functionalization. Bioorthogonal chemistry results in fast, specific, and high-yielding ligation under mild biological conditions without interactions with surrounding biomolecules or disturbance of the whole biosystem. Moreover, bioorthogonal chemical groups can be introduced into cells, especially into cell membranes, through cellular biosynthesis and metabolic incorporation. Hence, a specific and reliable approach for cell membrane functionalization based on bioorthogonal chemistry has been opportunely put forward and rapidly developed. In this Account, we summarize our recent research on the development of biomimetic systems by integrating bioorthogonal chemistry with biomimetic approaches. First, an exogenously supplied unnatural biosynthetic precursor (e.g., an amino acid or lipid) bearing a bioorthogonal group (e.g., azide or tetrazine) is fed to living cells and metabolically incorporated into targeted biomolecules via cellular biosynthesis regardless of the cell phenotype. After that, different functional molecules can be anchored to the cell membranes through bioorthogonal chemical reactions by using previously inserted "artificial chemical groups". Therefore, this safe, direct, and long-term engineering strategy endows the natural cell-based biomimetic systems with additional chemical or biological performances such as labeling, targeting, imaging, and therapeutic capabilities, providing a powerful tool for the construction of biomimetic systems. Interestingly, we have successfully fabricated various biomimetic systems and applied them in (1) living virus labeling, (2) targeting delivery and enrichment of drugs/imaging agents, and (3) disease theranostics. This Account may contribute to the further development of biomimetic systems and facilitate their biological and biomedical applications in the future. With this Account we also hope to attract more cooperative interests from different fields such as chemistry, materials science, biology, pharmacy, and medicine in promoting lab-to-clinic translation of cell-based biomimetic systems combined with these two cutting-edge techniques.

Smart Tumor-Cell-Derived Microparticles Provide On-Demand Photosensitizer Synthesis and Hypoxia Relief for Photodynamic Therapy.

Positioning essential elements of photodynamic therapy (PDT) near to mitochondria can conquer the rigorous spatiotemporal limitations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) transfer and make considerable differences in PDT. However, precise accumulation of photosensitizer (PS) and oxygen within mitochondria is still challenging. We simultaneously encapsulated hexyl 5-aminolevulinate hydrochloride (HAL) and 3-bromopyruvic acid (3BP) into microparticles collected from X-ray-irradiated tumor cells (X-MP). After systemic administration, the developed HAL/3BP@X-MP can specifically target and recognize tumor cells, where HAL induces efficient accumulation of PpIX in mitochondria via the intrinsic haem biosynthetic pathway. Meanwhile, 3BP remarkably increases the oxygen supply by inhibiting mitochondrial respiration. The accurate co-localization and prompt encounter of PpIX and oxygen produce sufficient ROS to directly disrupt mitochondria, resulting in significantly improved PDT outcomes.

MnCaCs-Biomineralized Oncolytic Virus for Bimodal Imaging-Guided and Synergistically Enhanced Anticancer Therapy.

Oncolytic adenovirus (OA) is an ideal candidate for clinical anticancer treatment, because it can specifically replicate in tumor cells with high titer. However, its systemic administration is still hindered, because of severely compromised antitumor efficacy. Herein, an engineered OA was innovatively developed by enwrapping OA with calcium and manganese carbonates (MnCaCs) biomineral shell, which could protect the virus from removal of the host immune system and prolong its in vivo circulation. Upon accumulating in tumor sites, MnCaCs readily dissolved under the acidic microenvironment, releasing Mn2+ that could convert endogenous H2O2 into oxygen (O2) and then enhance the duplication ability of OA, thus significantly increased the antitumor efficacy. Meanwhile, Mn2+ and the increased O2 individually endowed the T1 modal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI) feasibility, providing real-time monitoring information for the therapy. This versatile engineered OA demonstrated its promise for visible and efficient oncolytic virotherapy by systemic administration.

Green Mass Production of Pure Nanodrugs via an Ice-Template-Assisted Strategy.

To make nanomedicine potentially applicable in a clinical setting, several methods have been developed to synthesize pure nanodrugs (PNDs) without using any additional inert carriers. In this work, we report a novel green, low-cost, and scalable ice-template-assisted approach which shows several unique characteristics. First, the whole process only requires adding a drug solution into an ice template and subsequent melting (or freeze-drying), allowing easy industrial mass production with low capital investment. Second, the production yield is much higher than that of the traditional reprecipitation approach. The yield of Curcumin (Cur) PNDs is over two orders (∼140 times) magnitude higher than that obtained in a typical reprecipitation preparation. By adjusting simple processing parameters, PNDs with different sizes (∼20-200 nm) can be controllably obtained. Finally, the present approach can be easily applicable for a wide range of hydrophobic therapeutic drugs without any structural modification.

Molecularly Engineered Macrophage-Derived Exosomes with Inflammation Tropism and Intrinsic Heme Biosynthesis for Atherosclerosis Treatment.

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a major contributor to cardiovascular diseases worldwide, and alleviating inflammation is a promising strategy for AS treatment. Here, we report molecularly engineered M2 macrophage-derived exosomes (M2 Exo) with inflammation-tropism and anti-inflammatory capabilities for AS imaging and therapy. M2 Exo are derived from M2 macrophages and further electroporated with FDA-approved hexyl 5-aminolevulinate hydrochloride (HAL). After systematic administration, the engineered M2 Exo exhibit excellent inflammation-tropism and anti-inflammation effects via the surface-bonded chemokine receptors and the anti-inflammatory cytokines released from the anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages. Moreover, the encapsulated HAL can undergo intrinsic biosynthesis and metabolism of heme to generate anti-inflammatory carbon monoxide and bilirubin, which further enhance the anti-inflammation effects and finally alleviate AS. Meanwhile, the intermediate protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) of the heme biosynthesis pathway permits the fluorescence imaging and tracking of AS.

Responsive Exosome Nano-bioconjugates for Synergistic Cancer Therapy.

Exosomes hold great potential in therapeutic development. However, native exosomes usually induce insufficient effects in vivo and simply act as drug delivery vehicles. Herein, we synthesize responsive exosome nano-bioconjugates for cancer therapy. Azide-modified exosomes derived from M1 macrophages are conjugated with dibenzocyclooctyne-modified antibodies of CD47 and SIRPα (aCD47 and aSIRPα) through pH-sensitive linkers. After systemic administration, the nano-bioconjugates can actively target tumors through the specific recognition between aCD47 and CD47 on the tumor cell surface. In the acidic tumor microenvironment, the benzoic-imine bonds of the nano-bioconjugates are cleaved to release aSIRPα and aCD47 that can, respectively, block SIRPα on macrophages and CD47, leading to abolished "don't eat me" signaling and improved phagocytosis of macrophages. Meanwhile, the native M1 exosomes effectively reprogram the macrophages from pro-tumoral M2 to anti-tumoral M1.

Biomimetic Microfluidic System for Fast and Specific Detection of Circulating Tumor Cells.

Improving the specific capture efficiency of CTCs, and meanwhile preventing the nonspecific adsorption of surrounding background cells, is the main focus of CTCs detection. Herein, a novel biomimetic microfluidic system was developed by combining the unique benefits of biomimetic nanoparticles and microfluidic techniques. The magnetic nanoclusters were camouflaged with leukocyte membrane fragments and decorated with aptamer SYL3C specific for EpCAM positive tumor cells and then loaded into the microfluidic chip with the help of magnets. By use of this system, more than 90% of the rare tumor cells in blood could be captured and detected within 20 min with almost no leukocyte background, indicating a great practical application potential for CTCs detection.

Colorimetric-Fluorescent-Magnetic Nanosphere-Based Multimodal Assay Platform for Salmonella Detection.

Rapid and sensitive foodborne pathogen detection assay, which can be applied in multiple fields, is essential to timely diagnosis. Herein, we proposed a multisignal readout lateral flow immunoassay for Salmonella typhimurium ( S. typhi) detection. The assay employs colorimetric-fluorescent-magnetic nanospheres (CFMNs) as labels, which possess multifunctional target separation and enrichment, multisignal readout, and two formats of quantitation. The assay for S. typhi detection involves magnetic separation and chromatography. First, the S. typhi were separated and enriched from matrix by antibody labeled CFMNs, and then the S. typhi-containing suspension is added onto the sample pad to flow up the test strip. The introduction of magnetic separation enhances anti-interference ability and 10-fold sensitivity, making the assay possible for practical application. The assay has realized naked eye detection of 1.88 × 104 CFU/mL S. typhi, and 3.75 × 103 CFU/mL S. typhi can be detected with a magnetic assay reader, which is 2-4 orders of magnitude lower than other label-based LFIAs, with a quantitation range of 1.88 × 104 to 1.88 × 107 CFU/mL by measuring the fluorescence intensity and magnetic signal. Moreover, the successful detection of S. typhi in complex matrix (tap water, milk, fetal bovine serum, and whole blood) indicated its potential application in real samples.

Multifunctional Cellular Beacons with in Situ Synthesized Quantum Dots Make Pathogen Detectable with the Naked Eye.

The rapid and sensitive detection of pathogens is extremely crucial for timely clinical diagnosis and diseases control. Here, by employing cellular beacons with in situ synthesized QDs created from Staphylococcus aureus ( S. aureus), we efficiently fabricated an antibody (Ab) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-functionalized nanobioprobe, i.e., multifunctional cellular beacons (MCBs), avoiding complicated modification. Coupled with magnetic separation, a novel method for pathogen detection with the naked eye is established. With this method, enterovirus 71 (EV71) can be detected by the naked eye through the aggregation of gold nanoparticles that is triggered by the product of AChE catalyzed acetylthiocholine, with a detection limit of 0.5 ng/mL. Moreover, due to the MCBs have high luminance with perfect uniformity, the detection can also be realized by counting the number of MCBs, with a detection limit of 1 ng/mL. The method is validated with human throat swabs, resulting in a complete consistence with reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction results. This study reports the first cellular beacons-based method for pathogen detection by the naked eye and broadens the applicability of cell self-synthesized nanoparticles-based immunoassays. Moreover, the MCBs-based method will provide a powerful tool for clinical detection.