Genetic Basis and Evolutionary Forces of Sexually Dimorphic Color Variation in a Toad-Headed Agamid Lizard.

In the animal kingdom, sexually dimorphic color variation is a widespread phenomenon that significantly influences survival and reproductive success. However, the genetic underpinnings of this variation remain inadequately understood. Our investigation into sexually dimorphic color variation in the desert-dwelling Guinan population of the toad-headed agamid lizard (Phrynocephalus putjatai) utilized a multidisciplinary approach, encompassing phenotypic, ultrastructural, biochemical, genomic analyses, and behavioral experiments. Our findings unveil the association between distinct skin colorations and varying levels of carotenoid and pteridine pigments. The red coloration in males is determined by a genomic region on chromosome 14, housing four pigmentation genes: BCO2 and three 6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthases. A Guinan population-specific nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphism in BCO2 is predicted to alter the electrostatic potential within the binding domain of the BCO2-ß-carotene complex, influencing their interaction. Additionally, the gene MAP7 on chromosome 2 emerges as a potential contributor to the blue coloration in subadults and adult females. Sex-specific expression patterns point to steroid hormone-associated genes (SULT2B1 and SRD5A2) as potential upstream regulators influencing sexually dimorphic coloration. Visual modeling and field experiments support the potential selective advantages of vibrant coloration in desert environments. This implies that natural selection, potentially coupled with assortative mating, might have played a role in fixing color alleles, contributing to prevalence in the local desert habitat. This study provides novel insights into the genetic basis of carotenoid and pteridine-based color variation, shedding light on the evolution of sexually dimorphic coloration in animals. Moreover, it advances our understanding of the driving forces behind such intricate coloration patterns.

Does brain size of Asiatic toads (Bufo gargarizans) trade-off with other energetically expensive organs along altitudinal gradients?

Brain size variation is often attributed to energetic trade-offs with other metabolically expensive tissues and organs, which is a prediction of the expensive brain hypothesis (EBH). Here we examine Asiatic toads (Bufo gargarizans) along altitudinal gradients, and test size trade-offs between brain and four visceral organs (heart, liver, alimentary tract, and kidney) with altitude. Body size and scaled mass index (SMI; a proxy for total energy intake) decline with altitude, implying stronger energetic constraints at high altitudes. Relative brain size decreases along altitudinal gradients while visceral organs mostly increase in relative sizes. Using structural equation modelling, a significant negative relationship between brain size and a latent variable 'budget', which represents the energy allocation to the four visceral organs, is detected among high-altitudinal toads. Heart appears to have the largest and most consistent response to changes of energy allocation. No such relationships are observed among toads at middle and low altitudes, where high energy intake may allow individuals to forego energetic trade-offs. When applying EBH to poikilotherms, a great emphasis should be placed on total energy intake in addition to energy allocation. Future research on EBH will benefit from more intra-specific comparisons and the evaluation of fitness consequences beyond energy limitation.

Highly Efficient Phosphazene-Derivative-Based Flame Retardant with Comprehensive and Enhanced Fire Safety and Mechanical Performance for Polycarbonate.

Polycarbonate (PC) as a widely used engineering plastic that shows disadvantages of flammability and large smoke production during combustion. Although many flame-retardant PCs have been developed, most of them show enhanced flame retardancy but poor smoke suppression or worsened mechanical performance. In this work, a novel nitrogen-phosphorus-sulfur synergistic flame retardant (Pc-FR) was synthesized and incorporated into PC with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). The extremely low content of PC-FR (0.1-0.5 wt%) contributes significantly to the flame retardancy, smoke suppression and mechanical performance of PC. PC/0.3 wt% Pc-FR/0.3 wt% PTFE (PC-P0.3) shows the UL-94 V-0 and LOI of 33.5%. The PHRR, THR, PSPR, PCO and TCO of PC-P0.3 decreased by 39.44%, 14.38%, 17.45%, 54.75% and 30.61%, respectively. The impact strength and storage modulus of PC-P0.1 increased by 7.7 kJ/m2 and 26 MPa, respectively. The pyrolysis mechanism of PC-P0.3 is also revealed. The pyrolysis mechanism of PC-P0.3 is stochastic nucleation and subsequent growth and satisfies the Aevrami-Erofeev equation. The reaction order of PC-P0.3 is 1/2. The activation energy of PC-P0.3 is larger than PC-0, which proves that the Pc-FR can suppress the pyrolysis of the PC. This work offers a direction on how to design high-performance PC.

Brain size variation along altitudinal gradients in the Asiatic Toad (Bufo gargarizans).

Size changes in brain and brain regions along altitudinal gradients provide insight into the trade-off between energetic expenditure and cognitive capacity. We investigated the brain size variations of the Asiatic Toad (Bufo gargarizans) across altitudes from 700 m to 3,200 m. A total of 325 individuals from 11 sites and two transects were sampled. To reduce confounding factors, all sampling sites within each transect were within a maximum distance of 85 km and an altitudinal difference close to 2,000 m. Brains were dissected, and five regions were both measured directly and with 3D CT scan. There is a significant negative correlation between the relative whole-brain volume (to snout-vent length) and altitude. Furthermore, the relative volumes (to whole-brain volume) of optic tectum and cerebellum also decrease along the altitudinal gradients, while the telencephalon increases its relative volume along the gradients. Therefore, our results are mostly consistent with the expensive brain hypothesis and the functional constraint hypothesis. We suggest that most current hypotheses are not mutually exclusive and data supporting one hypothesis are often partially consistent with others. More studies on mechanisms are needed to explain the brain size evolution in natural populations.

Metabolic cold adaptation in the Asiatic toad: intraspecific comparison along an altitudinal gradient.

The metabolic cold adaptation (MCA) hypothesis predicts an increase in metabolic rate and thermal sensitivity of poikilotherms from cold environments as compared to those from warm environments, when measured under standardized conditions. This compensatory response is also expected to evolve in life history and behavioral traits if the reductions in these phenotypic traits at low temperature involves in a reduction in fitness. We investigated the extent to which the level of energy intake (measured as feeding rate), energy turnover (measured as standard metabolic rate, SMR) and the energy budget (energy allocation to growth and physical activity) are influenced by climatic conditions in three populations of the Asiatic toad (Bufo gargarizans) distributed across an altitudinal gradient of 1350 m in the Qionglai Mountains of Western China. We found a similar thermal reaction norm of SMR at both population and individual levels; therefore, the data did not support the MCA hypothesis. However, there was a co-gradient variation (CoGV) for mass change rate in which the high and medium altitudinal populations displayed slower mass change rates than their counterparts from low altitudes. Moreover, this CoGV pattern was accompanied by a low feeding rate and high physical activity for the high- and medium-altitude populations. Our results highlight that adjustments in energy intake and energy allocation to behaviors, but not energy allocation to metabolism of maintenance, could act as an energetic strategy to accommodate the varied growth efficiency in Asiatic toads along an altitudinal gradient.

[Effect of danshensu, protocatechualdehyde and danshen injection on calcium ion concentration in cytoplasm of human erythrocytes].

OBJECTIVE: To study the predominant calcium-antagonist components of Danshen injection. METHOD: The effects of danshensu, protocatechualdehyde and Danshen injection on calcium concentration in cytoplasm of erythrocytes were examined in vitro by the fluorescent Ca+ -chelator fura-2. RESULT: Either DS182 or PCAD can decrease in dose-dependent cytosolic free calcium concentration in human erythrocytes. They had additive effect when mixed, which was similar to Danshen injection. CONCLUSION: DS182 and PCAD may be predominant calcium-antagonist components of Danshen injection.