ADAM22/LGI1 complex as a new actionable target for breast cancer brain metastasis.

BACKGROUND: Metastatic breast cancer is a major cause of cancer-related deaths in woman. Brain metastasis is a common and devastating site of relapse for several breast cancer molecular subtypes, including oestrogen receptor-positive disease, with life expectancy of less than a year. While efforts have been devoted to developing therapeutics for extra-cranial metastasis, drug penetration of blood-brain barrier (BBB) remains a major clinical challenge. Defining molecular alterations in breast cancer brain metastasis enables the identification of novel actionable targets. METHODS: Global transcriptomic analysis of matched primary and metastatic patient tumours (n = 35 patients, 70 tumour samples) identified a putative new actionable target for advanced breast cancer which was further validated in vivo and in breast cancer patient tumour tissue (n = 843 patients). A peptide mimetic of the target's natural ligand was designed in silico and its efficacy assessed in in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo models of breast cancer metastasis. RESULTS: Bioinformatic analysis of over-represented pathways in metastatic breast cancer identified ADAM22 as a top ranked member of the ECM-related druggable genome specific to brain metastases. ADAM22 was validated as an actionable target in in vitro, ex vivo and in patient tumour tissue (n = 843 patients). A peptide mimetic of the ADAM22 ligand LGI1, LGI1MIM, was designed in silico. The efficacy of LGI1MIM and its ability to penetrate the BBB were assessed in vitro, ex vivo and in brain metastasis BBB 3D biometric biohybrid models, respectively. Treatment with LGI1MIM in vivo inhibited disease progression, in particular the development of brain metastasis. CONCLUSION: ADAM22 expression in advanced breast cancer supports development of breast cancer brain metastasis. Targeting ADAM22 with a peptide mimetic LGI1MIM represents a new therapeutic option to treat metastatic brain disease.

Correction to: Nongenomic oestrogen signalling in oestrogen receptor negative breast cancer cells: a role for the angiotensin II receptor AT1.

After the publication of this work [1] errors were noticed in the total protein loading controls for Figs. 1C, 2B, 3B and 4B.

Cleavage of the extracellular domain of junctional adhesion molecule-A is associated with resistance to anti-HER2 therapies in breast cancer settings.

BACKGROUND: Junctional adhesion molecule-A (JAM-A) is an adhesion molecule whose overexpression on breast tumor tissue has been associated with aggressive cancer phenotypes, including human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2)-positive disease. Since JAM-A has been described to regulate HER2 expression in breast cancer cells, we hypothesized that JAM-dependent stabilization of HER2 could participate in resistance to HER2-targeted therapies. METHODS: Using breast cancer cell line models resistant to anti-HER2 drugs, we investigated JAM-A expression and the effect of JAM-A silencing on biochemical/functional parameters. We also tested whether altered JAM-A expression/processing underpinned differences between drug-sensitive and -resistant cells and acted as a biomarker of patients who developed resistance to HER2-targeted therapies. RESULTS: Silencing JAM-A enhanced the anti-proliferative effects of anti-HER2 treatments in trastuzumab- and lapatinib-resistant breast cancer cells and further reduced HER2 protein expression and Akt phosphorylation in drug-treated cells. Increased epidermal growth factor receptor expression observed in drug-resistant models was normalized upon JAM-A silencing. JAM-A was highly expressed in all of a small cohort of HER2-positive patients whose disease recurred following anti-HER2 therapy. High JAM-A expression also correlated with metastatic disease at the time of diagnosis in another patient cohort resistant to trastuzumab therapy. Importantly, cleavage of JAM-A was increased in drug-resistant cell lines in conjunction with increased expression of ADAM-10 and -17 metalloproteases. Pharmacological inhibition or genetic silencing studies suggested a particular role for ADAM-10 in reducing JAM-A cleavage and partially re-sensitizing drug-resistant cells to the anti-proliferative effects of HER2-targeted drugs. Functionally, recombinant cleaved JAM-A enhanced breast cancer cell invasion in vitro and both invasion and proliferation in a semi-in vivo model. Finally, cleaved JAM-A was detectable in the serum of a small cohort of HER2-positive patients and correlated significantly with resistance to HER2-targeted therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, our data suggest a novel model whereby increased expression and cleavage of JAM-A drive tumorigenic behavior and act as a biomarker and potential therapeutic target for resistance to HER2-targeted therapies.

S100ß as a serum marker in endocrine resistant breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Endocrine therapy is standard treatment for estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer. However, its efficacy is limited by intrinsic and acquired resistance. Here the potential of S100ß as a biomarker and inhibition of its signaling network as a therapeutic strategy in endocrine treated patients was investigated. METHODS: The expression of S100ß in tissue and serum was assessed by immunohistochemistry and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. The S100ß signaling network was investigated in cell line models of endocrine resistance by western blot, PCR, immunoprecipitation, and chromatin-immunoprecipitation. Endocrine resistant xenografts and tumor explants from patients with resistant tumors were treated with endocrine therapy in the presence and absence of the p-Src kinase inhibitor, dasatinib. RESULTS: Tissue and serum levels of S100ß were found to predict poor disease-free survival in endocrine-treated patients (n = 509, HR 2.32, 95% CI is 1.58-3.40, p < 0.0001 and n = 187, HR 4.009, 95% CI is 1.66-9.68, p = 0.002, respectively). Moreover, elevated levels of serum S100ß detected during routine surveillance over the patient treatment period significantly associated with subsequent clinically confirmed disease recurrence (p = 0.019). In vivo studies demonstrated that endocrine treatment induced transcriptional regulation of S100ß which was successfully disrupted with tyrosine kinase inhibition. In endocrine resistant xenografts and tumor explants from patients with endocrine resistant breast cancer, combined endocrine and dasatinib treatment reduced tumor proliferation and down-regulated S100ß protein expression in comparison to endocrine treatment alone. CONCLUSIONS: S100ß has potential as a new surveillance tool for patients with ER-positive breast cancer to monitor ongoing response to endocrine therapy. Moreover, endocrine resistant breast cancer patients with elevated S100ß may benefit from combined endocrine and tyrosine-kinase inhibitor treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov,  NCT01840293 ). Registered on 23 April 2013. Retrospectively registered.

RET overexpression leads to increased brain metastatic competency in luminal breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer brain metastasis is a rising occurrence, necessitating a better understanding of the mechanisms involved for effective management. Breast cancer brain metastases diverge notably from the primary tumor, with gains in kinase and concomitant losses of steroid signaling observed. In this study, we explored the role of the kinase receptor RET in promoting breast cancer brain metastases and provide a rationale for targeting this receptor. METHODS: RET expression was characterized in a cohort of patients with primary and brain metastatic tumors. RET functionality was assessed using pharmacological inhibition and gene silencing in patient-derived brain metastatic tumor explants and in vivo models, organoid models, and brain organotypic cultures. RNA sequencing was used to uncover novel brain metastatic relevant RET mechanisms of action. RESULTS: A statistically significant enrichment of RET in brain metastases was observed in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, where it played a role in promoting cancer cell adhesion, survival, and outgrowth in the brain. In vivo, RET overexpression enhanced brain metastatic competency in patient-derived models. At a mechanistic level, RET overexpression was found to enhance the activation of gene programs involved in cell adhesion, requiring EGFR cooperation to deliver a pro-brain metastatic phenotype. CONCLUSION: Our results illustrate, for the first time, the role of RET in regulating colonization and outgrowth of breast cancer brain metastasis and provide data to support the use of RET inhibitors in the management strategy for patients with breast cancer brain metastases.

Mapping molecular subtype specific alterations in breast cancer brain metastases identifies clinically relevant vulnerabilities.

The molecular events and transcriptional plasticity driving brain metastasis in clinically relevant breast tumor subtypes has not been determined. Here we comprehensively dissect genomic, transcriptomic and clinical data in patient-matched longitudinal tumor samples, and unravel distinct transcriptional programs enriched in brain metastasis. We report on subtype specific hub genes and functional processes, central to disease-affected networks in brain metastasis. Importantly, in luminal brain metastases we identify homologous recombination deficiency operative in transcriptomic and genomic data with recurrent breast mutational signatures A, F and K, associated with mismatch repair defects, TP53 mutations and homologous recombination deficiency (HRD) respectively. Utilizing PARP inhibition in patient-derived brain metastatic tumor explants we functionally validate HRD as a key vulnerability. Here, we demonstrate a functionally relevant HRD evident at genomic and transcriptomic levels pointing to genomic instability in breast cancer brain metastasis which is of potential translational significance.

A clinically compatible drug-screening platform based on organotypic cultures identifies vulnerabilities to prevent and treat brain metastasis.

We report a medium-throughput drug-screening platform (METPlatform) based on organotypic cultures that allows to evaluate inhibitors against metastases growing in situ. By applying this approach to the unmet clinical need of brain metastasis, we identified several vulnerabilities. Among them, a blood-brain barrier permeable HSP90 inhibitor showed high potency against mouse and human brain metastases at clinically relevant stages of the disease, including a novel model of local relapse after neurosurgery. Furthermore, in situ proteomic analysis applied to metastases treated with the chaperone inhibitor uncovered a novel molecular program in brain metastasis, which includes biomarkers of poor prognosis and actionable mechanisms of resistance. Our work validates METPlatform as a potent resource for metastasis research integrating drug-screening and unbiased omic approaches that is compatible with human samples. Thus, this clinically relevant strategy is aimed to personalize the management of metastatic disease in the brain and elsewhere.

Stratification of radiosensitive brain metastases based on an actionable S100A9/RAGE resistance mechanism.

Whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) is the treatment backbone for many patients with brain metastasis; however, its efficacy in preventing disease progression and the associated toxicity have questioned the clinical impact of this approach and emphasized the need for alternative treatments. Given the limited therapeutic options available for these patients and the poor understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the resistance of metastatic lesions to WBRT, we sought to uncover actionable targets and biomarkers that could help to refine patient selection. Through an unbiased analysis of experimental in vivo models of brain metastasis resistant to WBRT, we identified activation of the S100A9-RAGE-NF-κB-JunB pathway in brain metastases as a potential mediator of resistance in this organ. Targeting this pathway genetically or pharmacologically was sufficient to revert the WBRT resistance and increase therapeutic benefits in vivo at lower doses of radiation. In patients with primary melanoma, lung or breast adenocarcinoma developing brain metastasis, endogenous S100A9 levels in brain lesions correlated with clinical response to WBRT and underscored the potential of S100A9 levels in the blood as a noninvasive biomarker. Collectively, we provide a molecular framework to personalize WBRT and improve its efficacy through combination with a radiosensitizer that balances therapeutic benefit and toxicity.

Steroid Ligands, the Forgotten Triggers of Nuclear Receptor Action; Implications for Acquired Resistance to Endocrine Therapy.

PURPOSE: There is strong epidemiologic evidence indicating that estrogens may not be the sole steroid drivers of breast cancer. We hypothesize that abundant adrenal androgenic steroid precursors, acting via the androgen receptor (AR), promote an endocrine-resistant breast cancer phenotype. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: AR was evaluated in a primary breast cancer tissue microarray (n = 844). Androstenedione (4AD) levels were evaluated in serum samples (n = 42) from hormone receptor-positive, postmenopausal breast cancer. Levels of androgens, progesterone, and estradiol were quantified using LC/MS-MS in serum from age- and grade-matched recurrent and nonrecurrent patients (n = 6) before and after aromatase inhibitor (AI) therapy (>12 months). AR and estrogen receptor (ER) signaling pathway activities were analyzed in two independent AI-treated cohorts. RESULTS: AR protein expression was associated with favorable progression-free survival in the total population (Wilcoxon, P < 0.001). Pretherapy serum samples from breast cancer patients showed decreasing levels of 4AD with age only in the nonrecurrent group (P < 0.05). LC/MS-MS analysis of an AI-sensitive and AI-resistant cohort demonstrated the ability to detect altered levels of steroids in serum of patients before and after AI therapy. Transcriptional analysis showed an increased ratio of AR:ER signaling pathway activities in patients failing AI therapy (t test P < 0.05); furthermore, 4AD mediated gene changes associated with acquired AI resistance. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of examining the therapeutic consequences of the steroid microenvironment and demonstrable receptor activation using indicative gene expression signatures.

Induction of APOBEC3B expression by chemotherapy drugs is mediated by DNA-PK-directed activation of NF-κB.

The mutagenic APOBEC3B (A3B) cytosine deaminase is frequently over-expressed in cancer and promotes tumour heterogeneity and therapy resistance. Hence, understanding the mechanisms that underlie A3B over-expression is important, especially for developing therapeutic approaches to reducing A3B levels, and consequently limiting cancer mutagenesis. We previously demonstrated that A3B is repressed by p53 and p53 mutation increases A3B expression. Here, we investigate A3B expression upon treatment with chemotherapeutic drugs that activate p53, including 5-fluorouracil, etoposide and cisplatin. Contrary to expectation, these drugs induced A3B expression and concomitant cellular cytosine deaminase activity. A3B induction was p53-independent, as chemotherapy drugs stimulated A3B expression in p53 mutant cells. These drugs commonly activate ATM, ATR and DNA-PKcs. Using specific inhibitors and gene knockdowns, we show that activation of DNA-PKcs and ATM by chemotherapeutic drugs promotes NF-κB activity, with consequent recruitment of NF-κB to the A3B gene promoter to drive A3B expression. Further, we find that A3B knockdown re-sensitises resistant cells to cisplatin, and A3B knockout enhances sensitivity to chemotherapy drugs. Our data highlight a role for A3B in resistance to chemotherapy and indicate that stimulation of A3B expression by activation of DNA repair and NF-κB pathways could promote cancer mutations and expedite chemoresistance.

Comparative analysis of the AIB1 interactome in breast cancer reveals MTA2 as a repressive partner which silences E-Cadherin to promote EMT and associates with a pro-metastatic phenotype.

Steroid regulated cancer cells use nuclear receptors and associated regulatory proteins to orchestrate transcriptional networks to drive disease progression. In primary breast cancer, the coactivator AIB1 promotes estrogen receptor (ER) transcriptional activity to enhance cell proliferation. The function of the coactivator in ER+ metastasis however is not established. Here we describe AIB1 as a survival factor, regulator of pro-metastatic transcriptional pathways and a promising actionable target. Genomic alterations and functional expression of AIB1 associated with reduced disease-free survival in patients and enhanced metastatic capacity in novel CDX and PDX ex-vivo models of ER+ metastatic disease. Comparative analysis of the AIB1 interactome with complementary RNAseq characterized AIB1 as a transcriptional repressor. Specifically, we report that AIB1 interacts with MTA2 to form a repressive complex, inhibiting CDH1 (encoding E-cadherin) to promote EMT and drive progression. We further report that pharmacological and genetic inhibition of AIB1 demonstrates significant anti-proliferative activity in patient-derived models establishing AIB1 as a viable strategy to target endocrine resistant metastasis. This work defines a novel role for AIB1 in the regulation of EMT through transcriptional repression in advanced cancer cells with a considerable implication for prognosis and therapeutic interventions.

Coassociation of estrogen receptor and p160 proteins predicts resistance to endocrine treatment; SRC-1 is an independent predictor of breast cancer recurrence.

PURPOSE: This study investigates the role of the p160 coactivators AIB1 and SRC-1 independently, and their interactions with the estrogen receptor, in the development of resistance to endocrine treatments. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The expression of the p160s and the estrogen receptor, and their interactions, was analyzed by immunohistochemistry and quantitative coassociation immunofluorescent microscopy, using cell lines, primary breast tumor cell cultures, and a tissue microarray with breast cancer samples from 560 patients. RESULTS: Coassociation of the p160s and estrogen receptor alpha was increased in the LY2 endocrine-resistant cell line following treatment with tamoxifen in comparison with endocrine-sensitive MCF-7 cells. In primary cultures, there was an increase in association of the coactivators with estrogen receptor alpha following estrogen treatment but dissociation was evident with tamoxifen. Immunohistochemical staining of the tissue microarray revealed that SRC-1 was a strong predictor of reduced disease-free survival (DFS), both in patients receiving adjuvant tamoxifen treatment and untreated patients (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.0111, respectively). SRC-1 was assigned a hazard ratio of 2.12 using a Cox proportional hazards model. Endocrine-treated patients who coexpressed AIB1 with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 had a significantly shorter DFS compared with all other patients (P = 0.03). Quantitative coassociation analysis in the patient tissue microarray revealed significantly stronger colocalization of AIB1 and SRC-1 with estrogen receptor alpha in patients who have relapsed in comparison with those patients who did not recur (P = 0.026 and P = 0.00001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: SRC-1 is a strong independent predictor of reduced DFS, whereas the interactions of the p160 proteins with estrogen receptor alpha can predict the response of patients to endocrine treatment.

FiTAc-seq: fixed-tissue ChIP-seq for H3K27ac profiling and super-enhancer analysis of FFPE tissues.

Fixed-tissue ChIP-seq for H3K27 acetylation (H3K27ac) profiling (FiTAc-seq) is an epigenetic method for profiling active enhancers and promoters in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues. We previously developed a modified ChIP-seq protocol (FiT-seq) for chromatin profiling in FFPE. FiT-seq produces high-quality chromatin profiles particularly for methylated histone marks but is not optimized for H3K27ac profiling. FiTAc-seq is a modified protocol that replaces the proteinase K digestion applied in FiT-seq with extended heating at 65 °C in a higher concentration of detergent and a minimized sonication step, to produce robust genome-wide H3K27ac maps from clinical samples. FiTAc-seq generates high-quality enhancer landscapes and super-enhancer (SE) annotation in numerous archived FFPE samples from distinct tumor types. This approach will be of great interest for both basic and clinical researchers. The entire protocol from FFPE blocks to sequence-ready library can be accomplished within 4 d.

Brain Metastasis Cell Lines Panel: A Public Resource of Organotropic Cell Lines.

Spread of cancer to the brain remains an unmet clinical need in spite of the increasing number of cases among patients with lung, breast cancer, and melanoma most notably. Although research on brain metastasis was considered a minor aspect in the past due to its untreatable nature and invariable lethality, nowadays, limited but encouraging examples have questioned this statement, making it more attractive for basic and clinical researchers. Evidences of its own biological identity (i.e., specific microenvironment) and particular therapeutic requirements (i.e., presence of blood-brain barrier, blood-tumor barrier, molecular differences with the primary tumor) are thought to be critical aspects that must be functionally exploited using preclinical models. We present the coordinated effort of 19 laboratories to compile comprehensive information related to brain metastasis experimental models. Each laboratory has provided details on the cancer cell lines they have generated or characterized as being capable of forming metastatic colonies in the brain, as well as principle methodologies of brain metastasis research. The Brain Metastasis Cell Lines Panel (BrMPanel) represents the first of its class and includes information about the cell line, how tropism to the brain was established, and the behavior of each model in vivo. These and other aspects described are intended to assist investigators in choosing the most suitable cell line for research on brain metastasis. The main goal of this effort is to facilitate research on this unmet clinical need, to improve models through a collaborative environment, and to promote the exchange of information on these valuable resources.

Altered Steroid Milieu in AI-Resistant Breast Cancer Facilitates AR Mediated Gene-Expression Associated with Poor Response to Therapy.

Divergent roles for androgen receptor (AR) in breast cancer have been reported. Following aromatase inhibitor (AI) treatment, the conversion of circulating androgens into estrogens can be diminished by >99%. We wished to establish whether the steroid environment can dictate the role of AR and the implications of this for subsequent therapy. This study utilizes models of AI resistance to explore responsiveness to PI3K/mTOR and anti-AR therapy when cells are exposed to unconverted weak androgens. Transcriptomic alterations driven by androstenedione (4AD) were assessed by RNA-sequencing. AR and estrogen receptor (ER) recruitment to target gene promoters was evaluated using ChIP, and relevance to patient profiles was performed using publicly available data sets. Although BEZ235 showed decreased viability across AI-sensitive and -resistant cell lines, anti-AR treatment elicited a decrease in cell viability only in the AI-resistant model. Serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 3 (SGK3) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor ß (PKIB) were confirmed to be regulated by 4AD and shown to be mediated by AR; crucially, reexposure to estradiol suppressed expression of these genes. Meta-analysis of transcript levels showed high expression of SGK3 and PKIB to be associated with poor response to endocrine therapy (HR = 2.551, P = 0.003). Furthermore, this study found levels of SGK3 to be sustained in patients who do not respond to AI therapy. This study highlights the importance of the tumor steroid environment. SGK3 and PKIB are associated with poor response to endocrine therapy and could have utility in tailoring therapeutic approaches.

A novel panel of differentially-expressed microRNAs in breast cancer brain metastasis may predict patient survival.

Breast cancer brain metastasis (BCBM) is an area of unmet clinical need. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been linked to the metastatic process in breast cancer (BC). In this study, we aim to determine differentially-expressed miRNAs utilising primary BCs that did not relapse (BCNR, n = 12), primaries that relapsed (BCR) and their paired (n = 40 pairs) brain metastases (BM) using the NanoString™ nCounter™ miRNA Expression Assays. Significance analysis of microarrays identified 58 and 11 differentially-expressed miRNAs between BCNR vs BCR and BCR vs BM respectively and pathway analysis revealed enrichment for genes involved in invasion and metastasis. Four miRNAs, miR-132-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-150-5p and miR-155-5p, were differentially-expressed within both cohorts (BCNR-BCR, BCR-BM) and receiver-operating characteristic curve analysis (p = 0.00137) and Kaplan-Meier survival method (p = 0.0029, brain metastasis-free survival; p = 0.0007, overall survival) demonstrated their potential use as prognostic markers. Ingenuity pathway enrichment linked them to the MET oncogene, and the cMET protein was overexpressed in the BCR (p < 0.0001) and BM (p = 0.0008) cases, compared to the BCNRs. The 4-miRNAs panel identified in this study could be potentially used to distinguish BC patients with an increased risk of developing BCBM and provide potential novel therapeutic targets, whereas cMET-targeting warrants further investigation in the treatment of BCBM.

Implementing Patient-Derived Xenografts to Assess the Effectiveness of Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitors in Glioblastoma.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor with no available cure. As previously described, seliciclib, a first-generation cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor, down-regulates the anti-apoptotic protein, Mcl-1, in GBM, thereby sensitizing GBM cells to the apoptosis-inducing effects of the death receptor ligand, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL). Here, we have assessed the efficacy of seliciclib when delivered in combination with the antibody against human death receptor 5, drozitumab, in clinically relevant patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models of GBM. A reduction in viability and significant levels of apoptosis were observed in vitro in human GBM neurospheres following treatment with seliciclib plus drozitumab. While the co-treatment strategy induced a similar effect in PDX models, the dosing regimen required to observe seliciclib-targeted responses in the brain, resulted in lethal toxicity in 45% of animals. Additional studies showed that the second-generation CDK inhibitor, CYC065, with improved potency in comparison to seliciclib, induced a significant decrease in the size of human GBM neurospheres in vitro and was well tolerated in vivo, upon administration at clinically relevant doses. This study highlights the continued need for robust pre-clinical assessment of promising treatment approaches using clinically relevant models.

BET Inhibition as a Rational Therapeutic Strategy for Invasive Lobular Breast Cancer.

PURPOSE: Invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC) is a subtype of breast cancer accounting for 10% of breast tumors. The majority of patients are treated with endocrine therapy; however, endocrine resistance is common in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer and new therapeutic strategies are needed. Bromodomain and extraterminal inhibitors (BETi) are effective in diverse types of breast cancer but they have not yet been assessed in ILC. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We assessed whether targeting the BET proteins with JQ1 could serve as an effective therapeutic strategy in ILC in both 2D and 3D models. We used dynamic BH3 profiling and RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) to identify transcriptional reprograming enabling resistance to JQ1-induced apoptosis. As part of the RATHER study, we obtained copy-number alterations and RNA-seq on 61 ILC patient samples. RESULTS: Certain ILC cell lines were sensitive to JQ1, while others were intrinsically resistant to JQ1-induced apoptosis. JQ1 treatment led to an enhanced dependence on antiapoptotic proteins and a transcriptional rewiring inducing fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1). This increase in FGFR1 was also evident in invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) cell lines. The combination of JQ1 and FGFR1 inhibitors was highly effective at inhibiting growth in both 2D and 3D models of ILC and IDC. Interestingly, we found in the RATHER cohort of 61 ILC patients that 20% had FGFR1 amplification and we showed that high BRD3 mRNA expression was associated with poor survival specifically in ILC. CONCLUSIONS: We provide evidence that BETi either alone or in combination with FGFR1 inhibitors or BH3 mimetics may be a useful therapeutic strategy for recurrent ILC patients.

Transcriptome Characterization of Matched Primary Breast and Brain Metastatic Tumors to Detect Novel Actionable Targets.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer brain metastases (BrMs) are defined by complex adaptations to both adjuvant treatment regimens and the brain microenvironment. Consequences of these alterations remain poorly understood, as does their potential for clinical targeting. We utilized genome-wide molecular profiling to identify therapeutic targets acquired in metastatic disease. METHODS: Gene expression profiling of 21 patient-matched primary breast tumors and their associated brain metastases was performed by TrueSeq RNA-sequencing to determine clinically actionable BrM target genes. Identified targets were functionally validated using small molecule inhibitors in a cohort of resected BrM ex vivo explants (n = 4) and in a patient-derived xenograft (PDX) model of BrM. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: Considerable shifts in breast cancer cell-specific gene expression profiles were observed (1314 genes upregulated in BrM; 1702 genes downregulated in BrM; DESeq; fold change > 1.5, Padj < .05). Subsequent bioinformatic analysis for readily druggable targets revealed recurrent gains in RET expression and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) signaling. Small molecule inhibition of RET and HER2 in ex vivo patient BrM models (n = 4) resulted in statistically significantly reduced proliferation (P < .001 in four of four models). Furthermore, RET and HER2 inhibition in a PDX model of BrM led to a statistically significant antitumor response vs control (n = 4, % tumor growth inhibition [mean difference; SD], anti-RET = 86.3% [1176; 258.3], P < .001; anti-HER2 = 91.2% [1114; 257.9], P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: RNA-seq profiling of longitudinally collected specimens uncovered recurrent gene expression acquisitions in metastatic tumors, distinct from matched primary tumors. Critically, we identify aberrations in key oncogenic pathways and provide functional evidence for their suitability as therapeutic targets. Altogether, this study establishes recurrent, acquired vulnerabilities in BrM that warrant immediate clinical investigation and suggests paired specimen expression profiling as a compelling and underutilized strategy to identify targetable dependencies in advanced cancers.

Cyclooxygenase-2 predicts adverse effects of tamoxifen: a possible mechanism of role for nuclear HER2 in breast cancer patients.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is associated with breast tumour progression. Clinical and molecular studies implicate human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) in the regulation of COX-2 expression. Recent reports raise the possibility that HER2 could mediate these effects through direct transcriptional mechanisms. The relationship between HER2 and COX-2 was investigated in a cohort of breast cancer patients with or without endocrine treatment. A tissue microarray comprising tumours from 560 patients with 10-year follow-up was analysed for HER2, ERK1/2, polyoma enhancer activator 3 (PEA3) and COX-2 expression. Subcellular localisation of HER2 was assessed by immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. Expression of markers examined was analysed in relation to classic clinicopathological parameters and disease-free survival in the presence and absence of tamoxifen. COX-2 expression associated with both membranous and nuclear expression of HER2 (P=0.0033 and P<0.00001 respectively). No association was detected between COX-2 and either ERK1/2 or PEA3 (P=0.7 and P=0.3 respectively). None of the markers were found to be independently prognostic. Membrane HER2, nuclear HER2 and COX-2, however, were all found to predict poor disease-free survival in patients on endocrine treatment (P=0.0017, P=0.0003 and P=0.0202 respectively). Moreover, patients who were positive for COX-2 predicted adverse effects of tamoxifen (P=0.0427). These clinical ex vivo data are consistent with molecular observations that HER2 can regulate COX-2 expression through direct transcriptional mechanisms. COX-2 expression correlates with disease progression on endocrine treatment. This study supports a role for COX-2 as a predictor of adverse effects of tamoxifen in breast cancer patients.