Handling injectable medications in anaesthesia: Guidelines from the Association of Anaesthetists.

Peri-operative medication safety is complex. Avoidance of medication errors is both system- and practitioner-based, and many departments within the hospital contribute to safe and effective systems. For the individual anaesthetist, drawing up, labelling and then the correct administration of medications are key components in a patient's peri-operative journey. These guidelines aim to provide pragmatic safety steps for the practitioner and other individuals within the operative environment, as well as short- to long-term goals for development of a collaborative approach to reducing errors. The aim is that they will be used as a basis for instilling good practice.

A vanguard randomised feasibility trial comparing three regimens of peri-operative oxygen therapy on recovery after major surgery.

International recommendations encourage liberal administration of oxygen to patients having surgery under general anaesthesia, ostensibly to reduce surgical site infection. However, the optimal oxygen regimen to minimise postoperative complications and enhance recovery from surgery remains uncertain. The hospital operating theatre randomised oxygen (HOT-ROX) trial is a multicentre, patient- and assessor-blinded, parallel-group, randomised clinical trial designed to assess the effect of a restricted, standard care, or liberal peri-operative oxygen therapy regimen on days alive and at home after surgery in adults undergoing prolonged non-cardiac surgery under general anaesthesia. Here, we report the findings of the internal vanguard feasibility phase of the trial undertaken in four large metropolitan hospitals in Australia and New Zealand that included the first 210 patients of a planned overall 2640 trial sample, with eight pre-specified endpoints evaluating protocol implementation and safety. We screened a total of 956 participants between 1 September 2019 and 26 January 2021, with data from 210 participants included in the analysis. Median (IQR [range]) time-weighted average intra-operative Fi O2 was 0.30 (0.26-0.35 [0.20-0.59]) and 0.47 (0.44-0.51 [0.37-0.68]) for restricted and standard care, respectively (mean difference (95%CI) 0.17 (0.14-0.20), p < 0.001). Median time-weighted average intra-operative Fi O2 was 0.83 (0.80-0.85 [0.70-0.91]) for liberal oxygen therapy (mean difference (95%CI) compared with standard care 0.36 (0.33-0.39), p < 0.001). All feasibility endpoints were met. There were no significant patient adverse events. These data support the feasibility of proceeding with the HOT-ROX trial without major protocol modifications.

Implementing advance care plans in the peri-operative period, including plans for cardiopulmonary resuscitation: Association of Anaesthetists clinical practice guideline.

Contemporary guidance takes a patient-centred approach and recommends discussing and planning treatments that should be considered, not just those that should be withheld. Although some organisations and communities still use specific DNACPR (do not attempt cardiopulmonary resuscitation) forms to recommend that cardiopulmonary resuscitation is not attempted, this approach has been shown to have disadvantages and is no longer regarded as best practice. The following guidelines have been produced in response to this change. They are designed to help anaesthetists, as part of the wider healthcare team, to implement and respond to advance care planning documents before and during procedures. The guidelines apply to all procedures, however minor and low risk they are considered to be, and the same ethical and legal principles apply to procedures carried out under local or regional anaesthesia and/or conscious sedation, as well as to those under general anaesthesia.

Environmental effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation, and interactions with climate change: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2020.

This assessment by the Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) provides the latest scientific update since our most recent comprehensive assessment (Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences, 2019, 18, 595-828). The interactive effects between the stratospheric ozone layer, solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and climate change are presented within the framework of the Montreal Protocol and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. We address how these global environmental changes affect the atmosphere and air quality; human health; terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems; biogeochemical cycles; and materials used in outdoor construction, solar energy technologies, and fabrics. In many cases, there is a growing influence from changes in seasonality and extreme events due to climate change. Additionally, we assess the transmission and environmental effects of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, in the context of linkages with solar UV radiation and the Montreal Protocol.

Environmental effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation and interactions with climate change: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, update 2019.

This assessment, by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP), one of three Panels informing the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, provides an update, since our previous extensive assessment (Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2019, 18, 595-828), of recent findings of current and projected interactive environmental effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, stratospheric ozone, and climate change. These effects include those on human health, air quality, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles, and materials used in construction and other services. The present update evaluates further evidence of the consequences of human activity on climate change that are altering the exposure of organisms and ecosystems to UV radiation. This in turn reveals the interactive effects of many climate change factors with UV radiation that have implications for the atmosphere, feedbacks, contaminant fate and transport, organismal responses, and many outdoor materials including plastics, wood, and fabrics. The universal ratification of the Montreal Protocol, signed by 197 countries, has led to the regulation and phase-out of chemicals that deplete the stratospheric ozone layer. Although this treaty has had unprecedented success in protecting the ozone layer, and hence all life on Earth from damaging UV radiation, it is also making a substantial contribution to reducing climate warming because many of the chemicals under this treaty are greenhouse gases.

Ozone-climate interactions and effects on solar ultraviolet radiation.

This report assesses the effects of stratospheric ozone depletion and anticipated ozone recovery on the intensity of ultraviolet (UV) radiation at the Earth's surface. Interactions between changes in ozone and changes in climate, as well as their effects on UV radiation, are also considered. These evaluations focus mainly on new knowledge gained from research conducted during the last four years. Furthermore, drivers of changes in UV radiation other than ozone are discussed and their relative importance is assessed. The most important of these factors, namely clouds, aerosols and surface reflectivity, are related to changes in climate, and some of their effects on short- and long-term variations of UV radiation have already been identified from measurements. Finally, projected future developments in stratospheric ozone, climate, and other factors affecting UV radiation have been used to estimate changes in solar UV radiation from the present to the end of the 21st century. New instruments and methods have been assessed with respect to their ability to provide useful and accurate information for monitoring solar UV radiation at the Earth's surface and for determining relevant exposures of humans. Evidence since the last assessment reconfirms that systematic and accurate long-term measurements of UV radiation and stratospheric ozone are essential for assessing the effectiveness of the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments and adjustments. Finally, we have assessed aspects of UV radiation related to biological effects and human health, as well as implications for UV radiation from possible solar radiation management (geoengineering) methods to mitigate climate change.

Description of a new non-injectable connector to reduce the complications of arterial blood sampling.

Arterial cannulation is associated with complications including bacterial contamination, accidental intra-arterial injection and blood spillage. We performed a series of audits and experiments to gauge the potential for these, as well as assess the possible contribution of a new device, the Needle-Free Arterial Non-Injectable Connector (NIC), in reducing these risks. The NIC comprises a needle-free connector that prevents blood spillage and a one-way valve allowing aspiration only; once screwed onto the side port of a three-way tap, the device can only be removed with difficulty. We performed a clinical audit of arterial monitoring systems in our intensive care unit, which showed an incidence of bacterial colonisation of five in 86 (6%) three-way tap ports. We constructed a manikin simulation experiment of the management of acute bradycardia, in which trainee doctors were required to inject atropine intravenously. Ten of 15 (66%) doctors injected the drug into the three-way tap of the arterial monitoring system rather than into the intravenous cannula or the central venous catheter. In a laboratory study, we replicated the arterial blood sampling and flushing sequence from a three-way tap, with the syringes attached either directly to the three-way tap port or to a NIC attached to the port. The first (discard) syringe attached to the three-way tap was contaminated with bacteria. Bacterial growth was found in 17 of 20 (85%) downstream flushed samples (corresponding to the patient's circulation) when the three-way tap was accessed directly, compared to none of 20 accessed via the NIC (p < 0.0001). Growth was found on all of 20 (100%) ports accessed directly compared to none of 20 accessed via the NIC (p < 0.0001). The NIC effectively prevents bacteria from contaminating sampling lines. As its design also prevents accidental intra-arterial injection, we suggest that it can reduce complications of arterial monitoring.

Chlorhexidine cleaning of re-usable bougies.

Bougies are susceptible to becoming contaminated before or during use. Chlorhexidine wipes may have a residual antibacterial effect, potentially minimising bacterial transmission after bougie use or storage. We evaluated the decontaminant and antibacterial effectiveness of 70% alcohol/2% chlorhexidine wipes in laboratory, clinical and accelerated ageing studies, and conducted a telephone survey of normal practice. In the laboratory tests, chlorhexidine wipes were completely effective against Escherichia coli and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and prevented recontamination for 24 h. Clinical introduction of chlorhexidine wipes reduced bougie contamination from 33% to 0%. Following 150 cleaning episodes, there was no physical or functional damage to the bougies. Eight out of nine hospitals in the East of England Health Region use re-usable bougies. We recommend that following decontamination, bougies should be wiped with 70% alcohol/2% chlorhexidine wipes, to retain antimicrobial activity during handling.

Hidden flows and waste processing--an analysis of illustrative futures.

An existing materials flow model is adapted (using Excel and AMBER model platforms) to account for waste and hidden material flows within a domestic environment. Supported by national waste data, the implications of legislative change, domestic resource depletion and waste technology advances are explored. The revised methodology offers additional functionality for economic parameters that influence waste generation and disposal. We explore this accounting system under hypothetical future waste and resource management scenarios, illustrating the utility of the model. A sensitivity analysis confirms that imports, domestic extraction and their associated hidden flows impact mostly on waste generation. The model offers enhanced utility for policy and decision makers with regard to economic mass balance and strategic waste flows, and may promote further discussion about waste technology choice in the context of reducing carbon budgets.

Neuromuscular blockade in patients with ARDS: a rapid practice guideline.

The aim of this Intensive Care Medicine Rapid Practice Guideline (ICM-RPG) is to formulate an evidence-based guidance for the use of neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBA) in adults with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The panel comprised 20 international clinical experts from 12 countries, and 2 patient representatives. We adhered to the methodology for trustworthy clinical practice guidelines and followed a strict conflict of interest policy. We convened panelists through teleconferences and web-based discussions. Guideline experts from the guidelines in intensive care, development, and evaluation Group provided methodological support. Two content experts provided input and shared their expertise with the panel but did not participate in drafting the final recommendations. We followed the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach to assess the certainty of evidence and grade recommendations and suggestions. We used the evidence to decision framework to generate recommendations. The panel provided input on guideline implementation and monitoring, and suggested future research priorities. The overall certainty in the evidence was low. The ICM-RPG panel issued one recommendation and two suggestions regarding the use of NMBAs in adults with ARDS. Current evidence does not support the early routine use of an NMBA infusion in adults with ARDS of any severity. It favours avoiding a continuous infusion of NMBA for patients who are ventilated using a lighter sedation strategy. However, for patients who require deep sedation to facilitate lung protective ventilation or prone positioning, and require neuromuscular blockade, an infusion of an NMBA for 48 h is a reasonable option.

Safer arterial access.

Intra-arterial injection of drugs intended for intravenous delivery is a frequent and potentially devastating consequence of placing an arterial line in a patient. A system is described here that prevents this complication from occurring and its use is advocated in intensive care and operating theatre settings.

A two centre observational study of simultaneous pulse oximetry and arterial oxygen saturation recordings in intensive care unit patients.

The influence of variables that might affect the accuracy of pulse oximetry (SpO2) recordings in critically ill patients is not well established. We sought to describe the relationship between paired SpO2/SaO2 (oxygen saturation via arterial blood gas analysis) in adult intensive care unit (ICU) patients and to describe the diagnostic performance of SpO2 in detecting low SaO2 and PaO2. A paired SpO2/SaO2 measurement was obtained from 404 adults in ICU. Measurements were used to calculate bias, precision, and limits of agreement. Associations between bias and variables including vasopressor and inotrope use, capillary refill time, hand temperature, pulse pressure, body temperature, oximeter model, and skin colour were estimated. There was no overall statistically significant bias in paired SpO2/SaO2 measurements; observed limits of agreement were +/-4.4%. However, body temperature, oximeter model, and skin colour, were statistically significantly associated with the degree of bias. SpO2 <89% had a sensitivity of 3/7 (42.9%; 95% confidence intervals, CI, 9.9% to 81.6%) and a specificity of 344/384 (89.6%; 95% CI 86.1% to 92.5%) for detecting SaO2 <89%. The absence of statistically significant bias in paired SpO2/SaO2 in adult ICU patients provides support for the use of pulse oximetry to titrate oxygen therapy. However, SpO2 recordings alone should be used cautiously when SaO2 recordings of 4.4% higher or lower than the observed SpO2 would be of concern. A range of variables relevant to the critically ill had little or no effect on bias.

Preventing iatrogenic air embolism in the intensive care unit.

Air embolism is a potentially fatal consequence of incorrect connection of endotracheal tube cuff inflator devices. Currently, air lines from these devices can be connected to indwelling cannulae without impediment. This possibility can be eliminated with a simple modification of the air line, as described here.

Fluid administration, vasopressor use and patient outcomes in a group of high-risk cardiac surgical patients receiving postoperative goal-directed haemodynamic therapy: a pilot study.

The role of goal-directed therapy in high-risk cardiac surgical patients has not been determined. This study sought to observe the effect of a postoperative standardised haemodynamic protocol (SHP) on the administration of fluid and vasoactive drugs after high-risk cardiac surgery. This was an interventional pilot study. In 2010 to 2011, the SHP was introduced to the ICU at Wellington Regional Hospital, Wellington, New Zealand, for the perioperative management of patients undergoing high-risk cardiac surgery. A pulmonary artery catheter was inserted in the patients in the study group and fluids and supportive medications were provided in the ICU according to a protocol that targeted a cardiac index ≥ 2 l/min/m², mixed venous oxygen saturation ≥ 60% and a mean arterial pressure of 65 to 75 mmHg. Data from 40 consecutive high-risk cardiac surgical patients assigned to this protocol were compared with a matched cohort of 40 consecutive high-risk cardiac surgical patients receiving 'usual care' in 2009. Baseline characteristics were similar in the two groups. There was no significant difference in the duration of noradrenaline infusion in the SHP cohort compared to historical controls (median [IQR] 18.5 hours [31.63] versus 18 hours [18.3]; P=0.35), despite patients receiving more fluid in their first 12 hours in the ICU (mean 4687 ml [SD ± 2284 ml] versus 1889 ml [SD ± 1344 ml]; P <0.001). The SHP cohort had a higher rate of reintubation (4 in 37 [10.8%] versus 0 in 40 [0%]; P=0.049). The SHP delivered significantly more fluid, but did not reduce the duration of noradrenaline infusion, compared to usual care.

Showing neuropathy is related to increased mortality in diabetic patients - a survival analysis using an accelerated failure time model.

Diabetic subjects still have a reduced life expectancy despite many potential advances in patient care. Furthermore, population-based studies in well-defined cohorts of patients, to investigate the reduced life expectancies, are generally lacking. Computerized baseline data on a cohort of diabetic patients first attending our clinic during 1982-1985 were used to identify risk factors for increased mortality. This was carried out using an accelerated failure time (ACF) model. Out of 794 patients entered into the model, 201 (25.3%) patients died between 1982 and 1995. Baseline microvascular diabetic complications (peripheral sensory neuropathy and nephropathy) were found to be associated with increased mortality in patients, indicating that these are important, often overlooked, markers for those at greatest risk. Patients with type I (insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus were also identified as being at greater risk.