Topographic distribution and phenotypic heterogeneity of Schlemm's canal endothelium in human donor eyes.

Endothelium phenotype is known to be closely associated with flow shear stress. This study is to determine the topographic distribution of endothelial cells and the phenotype of different quadrants and regions of Schlemm's canal using human donor eyes. This study infers differences in flow dynamics based on cell shape and intracellular structure. The Schlemm's canal from 15 human donor eyes were either perfusion labelled using silver stain or dissected for float labeling with Phalloidin to enable visualization of endothelial cell border and intracellular structure. Data were acquired for endothelial cells from the outer and inner wall of Schlemm's canal and grouped according to quadrant of origin. Measurements included endothelial cell length, width, area, and aspect ratio and compared between quadrants. Endothelial cells are mostly spindle-shape and the cell size on the outer wall are larger and longer than those from the inner wall. Significant differences in endothelial cell size and shape were seen in different quadrants. The endothelial cells have varied shapes and orientations close to large ostia in the outer wall and remarkably long endothelial cells were found in the walls of collector channels. F-actin aggregation was found at all endothelial cell borders, and inside some of the endothelial cytoplasm. The presence of various spindle shapes, significant phenotype heterogeneity and F-actin aggregation of endothelial cells indicates aqueous humor flow likely creates variations in shear stress within Schlemm's canal. Further investigation of the relationship between the phenotype heterogeneity and hydrodynamics of aqueous flow may help us understand the mechanisms of outflow resistance changes in glaucoma.

Region-related and layer-specific permeability of the iris vasculature with morphological mechanism: A novel understanding of blood-aqueous barrier.

The permeability of iris blood vessels has an important role in maintaining aqueous humor (AH) homeostasis, contributing to variation in iris volume and probably the pathogenesis of angle closure glaucoma. This study investigates the permeability of the iris microvasculature to plasma-derived protein and correspond it with the morphologic characteristics of vascular mural cells (MCs). Twenty-two enucleated porcine eyes were used in this study. 12 eyes were micro-perfused with vehicle alone as control or with FITC-albumin as a marker of protein leakage and histological sections subsequently made to examine for FITC-albumin presence. The other 10 eyes were immunolabeled via micro-perfusion for αSMA and VE-cadherin to investigate their topographic distribution in the porcine iris vasculature, and to cross correspond with the locations of FITC-albumin deposits. Distribution of FITC-signals exhibited a site-dependent pattern and time-dependent change in the iris. Fluorescence was initially detected around capillaries in the superficial and deep layer of the iris microvascular network. The pupillary region and the iris root retained more fluorescent signal than the iridal ciliary region. At low magnification, αSMA labelling displayed a regional variation which was inversely correlated with vascular permeability. At the cellular level, αSMA labeling corresponded with vascular MCs distribution in the iris vascular network. The correspondence between iris microvascular permeability to FITC-albumin and the pattern of αSMA distribution and MCs coverage adds to the understanding of the elements comprising the blood-aqueous barrier with implications for the bio-mechanics of iris volume change.

Endothelial contraction of retinal veins.

We have previously reported that porcine retinal veins can be contracted by vasoactive factors such as endothelin-1, but it is still unknown which cells play the major role in such contraction responses. This study seeks to confirm whether retinal vein endothelial cells play a significant role in the endothelin-1 induced contraction of porcine retinal veins. This is a novel study which provides confirmation of the endothelial cells' ability to contract retinal veins using a live vessel preparation. Retinal veins were isolated from porcine retina and cannulated for perfusion. The vessels were exposed to extraluminal delivery of endothelin-1 (10-8 M) and change in vessel diameter recorded automatically every 2 s. A phase contrast objective lens was also used to capture images of the endothelial cell morphometries. The length, width, area, and perimeter were assessed. In addition, vein histology and immuno-labeling for contractile proteins was performed. With 10-8 M endothelin-1 contractions to 63.6% of baseline were seen. The polygonal shape of the endothelial cells under normal tone became spindle-like after contraction. The area, width, perimeter and length were significantly reduced by 54.8%, 48.1%, 28.5% and 10.5% respectively. Three contractile proteins, myosin, calponin and alpha-SMA were found in retinal vein endothelial cells. Retinal vein endothelial cells contain contractile proteins and can be contracted by endothelin-1 administration. Such contractile capability may be important in regulating retinal perfusion but could also be a factor in the pathogenesis of retinal vascular diseases such as retinal vein occlusion. As far as we are aware, this is the first study on living isolated veins to confirm that endothelial cells contribute to the endothelin-1 induced contraction.

Outcomes of 45 µm gelatin stent surgery over 24-month follow-up.

BACKGROUND: The main objectives of this study were to determine whether known risk factors for trabeculectomy failure similarly influence gelatin stent outcomes and to identify surgical factors which may optimise success. METHODS: A retrospective, observational study was conducted at a single centre in Perth, Western Australia over 24 months. Two-hundred and sixty-two eyes of 207 patients underwent XEN-45 stent surgery with various forms of glaucoma. Surgical and postoperative data on subjects undergoing XEN-45 stent surgery was collated. Intraocular pressure (IOP) reduction success was determined using three criteria: 1; IOP <18 mm Hg, 2: IOP <15 mm Hg and 3: >25% IOP reduction from baseline. Kaplan-Meier, mixed effects Cox Proportional hazard model and Chi-Square test were used to measure survival of functioning stents. RESULTS: The success rates at a maximum of 2 years after surgery by criteria 1, 2 and 3 were 61.3%, 26.2% and 28.9% in primary open angle glaucoma (n = 243), 18.8%, 16.9%, 21.4% in angle closure glaucoma (n = 11), 0%, 0%, 66.7% in congenital glaucoma (n = 5) and 0% in uveitic glaucoma (n = 3). No significant reduction in success was found in those eyes that had prior ocular surgery (all p > 0.07). CONCLUSIONS: Prior cataract or trabeculectomy surgery does not appear to adversely affect gelatin stent outcomes over 2 years follow up. Gelatin stent surgery appears to have less IOP reduction effect compared to trabeculectomy at 2 years.

Quantitative analysis of astrocyte and axonal density relationships: Glia to neuron ratio in the optic nerve laminar regions.

Astrocytes are critical for the maintenance of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axonal function and viability, and form a key component of the functional neurovascular unit. Recently, we described the quantitative properties of astrocytes in relation to the capillary distributions in optic nerve laminar regions. Here, we provide a quantitative analysis of astrocytes and RGC axons in longitudinal sections of optic nerve tissue. Histological and immunocytochemical techniques are used to demonstrate the density of astrocytes, RGC axons and glia-neuron ratios across the pre laminar, lamina cribrosa and post laminar compartments of the optic nerve head (ONH). A study of human, pig, horse and rat optic nerves was performed and comparisons are made between species. This study demonstrates that the distribution of astrocytes correlates closely with the density of axonal processes, in accordance with the functional requirement of different regions of the ganglion cell axon. There was a consistency of glia-neuron ratios in the majority of laminar compartments, except for the human and rat prelaminar regions, which demonstrated lower ratios of astrocyte to axonal processes. The distribution of astrocytes may reflect a functional susceptibility to development of disease in the prelaminar region of the optic nerve. Interspecies comparison at the lamina cribrosa showed strikingly consistent glia-neuron ratios. Collectively, our findings suggest there may be a critical ratio of glia to neuron needed to maintain healthy cellular physiology across different laminar compartments of the optic nerve, with particular importance for the health of the lamina cribrosa region. It is possible that, in disease processes, the glia-neuron relationships across the different laminar compartments may be perturbed and this may be relevant for the development of glaucoma. Emerging technologies may further aid our understanding in how the physiology of optic nerve tissue cellular structure may be affected by changes to ONH characteristics and elevated intraocular pressure induced damage. Such findings may also permit the early identification of RGC axonal injury by identifying quantifiable changes in structural tissue architecture when pathophysiological pathways predominate.

Use of trypan blue as an aqueous tracer dye to investigate hypotony where cyclodialysis cleft is suspected.

IMPORTANCE: A new method to help diagnose suspected cyclodialysis clefts. BACKGROUND: To study the use of trypan blue stained aqueous flow patterns in diagnosing causes of hypotony where cyclodialysis clefts were suspected. DESIGN: A case series in a tertiary care centre. PARTICIPANTS: Ten subjects presenting with persistent hypotony and retinal changes. METHODS: Trypan blue was injected into the anterior chamber. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The pattern of dye flow in the anterior chamber was categorized. Intraocular pressure prior to surgery was recorded. RESULTS: All seven subjects with cyclodialysis clefts had a preferential flow to the cleft region. Two hypotonous subjects post trabeculectomy had rapid (5 seconds) and extensive lymphatic staining (6 o'clock hours extent) without visible bleb formation. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Preferential flow of dye to the limbus is a reliable sign of cyclodialysis cleft and helps localize cleft extent. A new cause of hypotony, "lymphatic overdrain," is identified.

Use of trypan blue to assess lymphatic function following trabeculectomy.

IMPORTANCE: To illustrate the importance of lymphatic drainage in assessing trabeculectomy bleb function using intracameral trypan blue. BACKGROUND: To study the lymphatic drainage of trabeculectomy blebs using trypan blue, correlate with bleb function and classify them accordingly. DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional study in a tertiary care centre. PARTICIPANTS: Thirteen glaucoma patients post-trabeculectomy were studied. METHODS: Trypan blue was injected into the anterior chamber. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The duration taken for dye to stain a drainage bleb or lymphatics is recorded. The extent of the lymphatic structures were measured in clock hours. Intraocular pressure (IOP) prior to surgery was recorded. RESULTS: Eight post-trabeculectomy subjects with dye stained lymphatic vessels had lower IOP (12.6 mmHg, P = .013) compared to the five with no lymphatic vessel staining (mean IOP 23.6 mmHg). Lymphatic extent was inversely related to IOP (P = .021). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Eyes with lymphatic connections to drainage blebs had lower IOP and reduced requirement for topical medications. The extent of lymphatic connection to drainage blebs is related to lower IOP.

Regional differences in endothelial cell cytoskeleton, junctional proteins and phosphorylated tyrosine labeling in the porcine vortex vein system.

We previously demonstrated endothelial phenotype heterogeneity in the vortex vein system. This study is to further determine whether regional differences are present in the cytoskeleton, junctional proteins and phosphorylated tyrosine labeling within the system. The vortex vein system of twenty porcine eyes was perfused with labels for f-actin, claudin-5, VE-Cadherin, phosphorylated tyrosine and nucleic acid. The endothelial cells of eight different regions (choroidal veins, pre-ampulla, anterior ampulla, mid-ampulla, posterior ampulla, post-ampulla, intra-scleral canal and the extra-ocular vortex vein) were studied using confocal microscopy. There were regional differences in the endothelial cell structures. Cytoskeleton labeling was relatively even in intensity throughout Regions 1 to 6. Overall VE-Cadherin had a non-uniform distribution and thicker width endothelial cell border staining than claudin-5. Progressing downstream there was an increased variation in thickness of VE-cadherin labeling. There was an overlap in phosphorylated tyrosine and VE-Cadherin labeling in the post-ampulla, intra-scleral canal and extra-ocular vortex vein. Intramural cells were observed that were immune-positive for VE-Cadherin and phosphorylated tyrosine. There were significant differences in the number of intramural cells in different regions. Significant regional differences with endothelial cell labeling of cytoskeleton, junction proteins, and phosphorylated tyrosine were found within the vortex vein system. These findings support existing data on endothelial cell phenotype heterogeneity, and may aid in the knowledge of venous pathologies by understanding regions of vulnerability to endothelial damage within the vortex vein system. It could be valuable to further investigate and characterize the VE-cadherin and phosphotyrosine immune-positive intramural cells.

Neuronal degeneration and associated alterations in cytokine and protein in an experimental branch retinal venous occlusion model.

The mechanisms of neuronal degeneration and associated acute alterations in intraretinal cytokine and protein levels remain poorly understood in variable ischaemic retinopathies such as in branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO). Herein we investigate neuronal damage and alterations in retinal cytokines and proteins in a pig model of acute BRVO. Twelve pigs had a BRVO induced photothrombotically in both eyes. Three pigs (6 eyes) each at 2, 6, 10 and 20 days were sacrificed together with an additional 3 control (6 eyes), enucleated, retinas dissected and processed. Apoptosis in the inner retina was determined by terminal deoxyynuclotidyl transferase mediated dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) and histology. Expression of glial acidic fibrillary protein (GFAP), aquaporin-4 (AQP4), inward rectifier potassium channel 10 protein (Kir 4.1) encoded by KCNJ10 gene, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), stromal derived growth factor-1α (SDF-1) encoded by CXCL12 gene and interleukin (IL) -6 and 8 were analysed by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and immunohistochemistry. TUNEL labelling showed positive nuclei in the ganglion cell layer (GCL) and the inner nuclear layer (INL) which was significantly higher at 2 days after BRVO compared to other time points (p < 0.05). Analysis by RT-qPCR revealed that compared with controls, BRVO significantly increased mRNA expression of GFAP at 6, 10 and 20, AQP4 at 20, VEGF at 6, SDF-1 at 20 and IL-8 at 2 and 10 days respectively (p < 0.05): Kir 4.1 at 6, VEGF at 2 and 10, and IL-6 at 2 days were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). This study indicates that neural cell death occurs early in this acute model and the responses include inflammation and breakdown of osmohomeostasis as evidenced by the upregulation of GFAP and IL-8 and down regulation of Kir 4.1 associated with glyotic changes. Early short term VEGF upregulation seen may be related to involvement of Muller glial cells. These findings support the development of acute therapeutic strategies aimed at preservation of retinal neural cells as part of an overall management plan for BRVO.

Quantitative comparisons between optical coherence tomography angiography and matched histology in the human eye.

The aim was to quantitatively compare retinal vascular detail as seen on optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) and matched histology in the human eye. 13 normal human donor eyes were used. The central retinal artery was cannulated after which human packed red blood cells were perfused through the retinal vasculature. Retinal vessels were imaged using a custom-built OCTA device during red blood cell perfusion. The eye was subsequently perfused with endothelial cell antibodies and the flat-mounted retina studied histologically using a confocal scanning laser microscope. Qualitative and quantitative comparisons of retinal vascular information as seen on OCTA and histology from the same region of interest were performed. Gradable OCTA images were acquired from 4 of 13 eyes with mean postmortem-to-OCTA imaging time of 4.5 ±â€¯1.3 h 23 pairs of OCTA-histology matched images were evaluated. The retinal arteries and veins had similar pixel intensity on OCTA images. The diameter of retinal veins was significantly greater than its paired artery on OCTA (P < 0.001). The density of vascular structures on OCTA (40.2% ±â€¯10.1%) was significantly less than matched histology (52.1% ±â€¯9.3%, P < 0.001). Mean capillary diameter on OCTA (10.2 ±â€¯2.4 µm) was significantly greater than histology (8.2 ±â€¯2.4 µm; P < 0.001). This is the first study to directly compare OCTA against histology from the same human eye. OCTA visualizes many of the vascular structures in the human retinal circulation but does not exactly match what is seen on histologic examination.

Regulation of Oxygen Tension in the Mammalian Retina During Systemic Hyperoxia Is Species Dependent.

The oxygen supply to the retina in man and most mammals is derived from both the retinal and choroidal circulations. However, some mammals have only a partially vascularized retina, and some have a completely avascular retina. Here we contrast the retinal oxygen levels during systemic hyperoxia in a fully vascularized retina (rat), a partially vascularized retina (rabbit), and an avascular retina (guinea pig). Oxygen sensitive microelectrodes were used to measure the intraretinal oxygen distribution in anaesthetized rats, rabbits and guinea pigs during air breathing and 100% oxygen ventilation. In the vascularized rat retina the increase in oxygen tension in the choroid, reflected the increase in systemic oxygen levels during hyperoxic ventilation. However, the rise in oxygen levels in the inner retina was muted. In the avascular region of the partially vascularized rabbit retina, the increase in choroidal oxygen tension resulted in a large increase in oxygen tension across the full thickness of the retina. In the avascular retina of the guinea pig, very little change in choroidal or retinal oxygen tension was seen during systemic hyperoxia. Remarkably different responses to systemic hyperoxia are evident in the rat, rabbit, and guinea pig, three conventional laboratory animals that are commonly used in ophthalmic research. Neither the regulatory mechanisms responsible for the increase in oxygen consumption in the rat retina, or the stability of the choroidal oxygen tension in the guinea pig during systemic hyperoxia are currently understood. A better understanding of oxygen regulation in the mammalian retina could open up new avenues for improving the oxygen environment in the human retina in a range of ischaemic retinal diseases that account for the majority of blindness in the developed world.

Structural characteristics of the optic nerve head influencing human retinal venous pulsations.

The relationship between structural characteristics of the optic nerve head and venous pulsations in the human eye remain unknown. Using photoplethysmographic techniques we investigated whether properties of the human retinal veins and their surrounding structures influence venous pulsation. 448 locations of venous pulsation were analysed from 26 normal human eyes. Green channel densitometry derived from video recordings of venous pulsations were used to generate a map of venous pulsation amplitudes along retinal veins. Optical coherence tomography was used to perform quantitative measurements of tissue characteristics at sites of high and low amplitude points as well as in a second analysis, at maximal amplitude pulsation sites from superior and inferior halves of the eyes. Structural characteristics measured included venous diameter, distance from pulsation point to cup margin, vessel length from pulsation point to vein exit, tissue thickness overlying vein, optic disc diameter and presence of a proximal arteriovenous crossing. Increasing venous pulsation amplitudes were associated with larger applied ophthalmodynamometry force, increasing venous diameter, and decreasing absolute cup margin distance (all p < 0.001). Increasing distance of maximal amplitude pulsation point to cup margin was associated with the presence of a proximal arteriovenous crossing, increasing venous diameter, and decreasing tissue depth (all p ≤ 0.001). Venous diameter and tissue depth alter venous compliance, which is likely to be a major factor determining sites of venous pulsation.

In vivo optical imaging of human retinal capillary networks using speckle variance optical coherence tomography with quantitative clinico-histological correlation.

Retinal capillary networks are critically linked to neuronal health and disease. The ability to perform accurate in vivo examination of human retinal capillary networks is therefore valuable for studying mechanisms that govern retinal homeostasis and retinal vascular diseases. Speckle variance optical coherence tomography (svOCT) is a non-invasive imaging technique that has the capacity to provide angiographic information about the retinal circulation. The application of this technology for studying human retinal capillary networks however has not been validated in a quantifiable manner. We use a custom-built svOCT device to qualitatively and quantitatively study the various capillary networks in the human perifovea. Capillary networks corresponding to the nerve fibre layer (NFL), the retinal ganglion cell/superficial inner plexiform layer (RGC/sIPL), the deep inner plexiform layer/superficial inner nuclear layer (dIPL/sINL) and the deep inner nuclear layer (dINL) are imaged in 9 normal human subjects. Measurements of capillary diameter and capillary density are made from each of these networks and results are compared to post-mortem histological data acquired with confocal scanning laser microscopy. Additionally, retinal capillary measurements from high-resolution fundus fluorescein angiogram (FA) are directly compared with svOCT images from 6 eyes. We demonstrate that svOCT images of capillary networks are morphologically comparable to microscopic images of histological specimens. Similar to histological images in svOCT images, the capillaries in the NFL network run parallel to the direction of RGC axons while capillaries in the dINL network comprise a planar configuration with multiple closed loops. Capillaries in remaining networks are convoluted with a complex three-dimensional architecture. We demonstrate that there is no significant difference in capillary density measurements between svOCT and histology images for all networks. Capillary diameter was significantly greater in svOCT images compared to histology for all networks. Capillary density measurements were also higher in svOCT compared to FA. The results of this study suggest that in vivo svOCT imaging allows accurate morphometric assessment of capillary networks in the human perifovea and may provide an improved ability to render microvascular detail compared to FA. Therefore, svOCT may have broad clinical applications in the study of human retinal physiology and disease. The difference in quantitative measurements between svOCT and histology may reflect dynamic variations in the retinal microcirculation and warrants further investigation.

Intracellular cytoskeleton and junction proteins of endothelial cells in the porcine iris microvasculature.

Recently we reported studies of the iris microvasculature and its endothelial cells using intra-luminal micro-perfusion, fixation, and silver staining, suggesting that the iris vascular endothelium may be crucial for maintaining homeostasis in the ocular anterior segment. Here we present information regarding the intracellular structure and cell junctions of the iris endothelium. Thirty-seven porcine eyes were used for this study. The temporal long posterior ciliary artery was cannulated to assess the iris microvascular network and its endothelium using intra-luminal micro-perfusion, fixation, and staining with phalloidin for intracellular cytoskeleton f-actin, and with antibodies against claudin-5 and VE-cadherin for junction proteins. Nuclei were counterstained with Hoechst. The iris was flat-mounted for confocal imaging. The iris microvasculature was studied for its distribution, branch orders and endothelial morphometrics with endothelial cell length measured for each vessel order. Our results showed that morphometrics of the iris microvasculature was comparable with our previous silver staining. Abundant stress fibres and peripheral border staining were seen within the endothelial cells in larger arteries. An obvious decrease in cytoplasmic stress fibres was evident further downstream in the smaller arterioles, and they tended to be absent from capillaries and veins. Endothelial intercellular junctions throughout the iris vasculature were VE-cadherin and claudin-5 immuno-positive, indicating the presence of both adherent junctions and tight junctions between vascular endothelial cells throughout the iris microvasculature. Unevenness of claudin-5 staining was noted along the endothelial cell borders in almost every order of vessels, especially in veins and small arterioles. Our results suggest that significant heterogeneity of intracellular structure and junction proteins is present in different orders of the iris vasculature in addition to vascular diameter and shape of the endothelia. Detailed information of the topography and intracellular structure and junction proteins of the endothelium of the iris microvasculature combined with unique structural features of the iris may help us to further understand the physiological and pathogenic roles of the iris vasculature in relevant ocular diseases.

Quantitative study of the microvasculature and its endothelial cells in the porcine iris.

The roles of the iris microvasculature have been increasingly recognised in the pathogenesis of glaucoma and cataract; however limited information exists regarding the iris microvasculature and its endothelium. This study quantitatively assessed the iris microvascular network and its endothelium using intra-luminal micro-perfusion, fixation, and staining of the porcine iris. The temporal long posterior ciliary artery of 11 isolated porcine eyes was cannulated, perfusion-fixed and labelled using silver nitrate. The iris microvasculature was studied for its distribution, orders and endothelial morphometrics. The density of three layers of microvasculature was measured. Endothelial cell length and width were measured for each vessel order. The iris has an unusual vascular distribution which consisted of abundant large vessels in the middle of the iris stroma, branching over a relatively short distance to the microvasculature located in the superficial and deep stroma as well as the pupil edge. The average vascular density of the middle, superficial, and deep layers were 38.9 ± 1.93%, 10.9 ± 1.61% and 8.0 ± 0.79% respectively. Multiple orders of iris vessels (capillary, 6 orders of arteries, and 4 orders of veins) with relatively large capillary and input arteries (319.5 ± 25.6 µm) were found. Significant heterogeneity of vascular diameter and shape of the endothelia was revealed in different orders of the iris vasculature. Detailed information of topography and endothelium of the iris microvasculature combined with unique structural features of the iris may help us to further understand the physiological and pathogenic roles of the iris in relevant ocular diseases.

Quantitative study of age-related endothelial phenotype change in the human vortex vein system.

PURPOSE: We have previously reported significant phenotype heterogeneity in the vortex vein system. This study is to quantify the age-related change of such endothelial phenotype heterogeneity. METHOD: The inferior temporal vortex vein system of 10 eyes from 7 young donors (30±4.1 years) and 9 eyes from 6 aged (72±4.7 years) donors were dissected after perfusion fixation and labeled for f-actin and nucleic acid. Confocal images of endothelial cells were obtained from nine anatomic regions and measurements made of the cell and nucleus sizes. The results were compared between the two age groups. RESULTS: Similar regional endothelial heterogeneity was observed in both age groups through the different regions of the vortex vein system. Age-related increase in endothelial cell area was observed in all the study regions. Age-associated regional differences were also observed in the endothelial length, width, and nucleus parameters. Endothelial nuclei were also found to be located further downstream within the cell in aged donor eyes. CONCLUSION: Age related enlarged endothelial cells have been identified in this venous system, a likely indicator of senescence. The relationship between the endothelial senescence, regional endothelial phenotype change and endothelial dysfunction in possible pathological changes needs to be further defined.

Correlation between the radial peripapillary capillaries and the retinal nerve fibre layer in the normal human retina.

This study aims to provide evidence of the importance of radial peripapillary capillaries (RPCs) by quantitative study of the relationship between the RPCs and retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL) in normal human donor eyes. The retinal microvasculature in eleven normal human donor eyes was perfused, fixed and labelled after cannulation of the central retinal artery. The retinas were dissected and whole-mounted for confocal microscopy. Six study regions were taken radially from the edge of the optic disc. RPCs from the optic disc edge to a radial distance up to 2.5 mm were imaged and their diameters, inter-capillary distance and volume occupation measured. These were correlated with the study region as well as thickness of the RNFL. It was found that the pooled average diameter of the RPCs in the first 2.5 mm from the optic disk was 8.9 µm. Significant differences in capillary diameter were present in the six regions, with larger diameter RPCs in the superior, inferior and nasal regions, and significantly smaller diameter in the temporal region. RPCs in the arcuate fibre regions extend the furthest from the optic disc, maintained a close inter-capillary distance for a longer distance than other regions, and have the highest RPCs volume occupancy. The RPCs volume was generally correlated with RNFL thickness. In conclusion, a close correlation between RNFL and RPCs presence has been demonstrated which is supportive of their functional reliance/co-dependence. The significantly smaller temporal RPCs may be a result of the greater presence of RPCs in the two bordering arcuate fibre regions and therefore a richer availability of nutrients diffusing from these two regions.

Sectoral variations in the distribution of axonal cytoskeleton proteins in the human optic nerve head.

Axonal cytoskeleton proteins are intrinsically related to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) health and disease. This study quantifies and documents the sectoral distribution of axonal cytoskeleton proteins in the different laminar compartments of the normal human optic nerve head (ONH). Nine human eyes were used (mean age of 46.9 ± 3.7 years). Coronal sections of the prelaminar, anterior lamina cribrosa, posterior lamina cribrosa and retrolaminar regions were examined using immunohistochemical and confocal microscopy techniques. The axonal cytoskeleton was studied using antibodies to neurofilament light (NFL), neurofilament medium (NFM), neurofilament heavy (NFH), phosphorylated NFH (NFHp), microtubule associated protein-1 (MAP-1) and tubulin. Axonal cytoskeleton intensity was quantified in a standardized manner and comparisons were made within and between laminar regions. The intensity of NFM, NFH and NFHp is significantly greater in the nasal and peripheral sectors of the prelaminar, anterior lamina cribrosa and posterior lamina cribrosa regions. There is no significant difference in the distribution of NFL, tubulin and MAP-1 proteins between sectors in any laminar region. The intensity of all axonal cytoskeleton proteins in unmyelinated laminar regions is greater than the retrolaminar region. The distribution of all cytoskeleton proteins in the myelinated, retrolaminar region of the optic nerve appears to be relatively even. The distribution of axonal cytoskeleton proteins may have relevance for understanding the vulnerability of distinct ONH sectors to intraocular pressure- and ischaemia-mediated damage. The findings in this study may be important for understanding patho-physiological mechanisms involved in glaucomatous and ischaemic optic neuropathy.