Interception of Transient Allyl Radicals with Low-Valent Allylpalladium Chemistry: Tandem Pd(0/II/I)-Pd(0/II/I/II) Cycles in Photoredox/Pd Dual-Catalytic Enantioselective C(sp3)-C(sp3) Homocoupling.

We present comprehensive computational and experimental studies on the mechanism of an asymmetric photoredox/Pd dual-catalytic reductive C(sp3)-C(sp3) homocoupling of allylic electrophiles. In stark contrast to the canonical assumption that photoredox promotes bond formation via facile reductive elimination from high-valent metal-organic species, our computational analysis revealed an intriguing low-valent allylpalladium pathway that features tandem operation of Pd(0/II/I)-Pd(0/II/I/II) cycles. Specifically, we propose that (i) the photoredox/Pd system enables the in situ generation of allyl radicals from low-valent Pd(I)-allyl species, and (ii) effective interception of the fleeting allyl radical by the chiral Pd(I)-allyl species results in the formation of an enantioenriched product. Notably, the cooperation of the two pathways highlights the bifunctional role of Pd(I)-allyl species in the generation and interception of transient allyl radicals. Moreover, the mechanism implies divergent substrate-activation modes in this homocoupling reaction, suggesting a theoretical possibility for cross-coupling. Combined, the current study offers a novel mechanistic hypothesis for photoredox/Pd dual catalysis and highlights the use of low-valent allylpalladium as a means to efficiently intercept radicals for selective asymmetric bond constructions.

Photoexcited Chiral Copper Complex-Mediated Alkene E → Z Isomerization Enables Kinetic Resolution.

While asymmetric synthesis has been established as a powerful synthetic tool for the construction of versatile enantioenriched molecules in the most efficient and practical manner, the resolution of racemates is still the most universal industrial approach to the synthesis of chiral compounds. However, the direct formation of enantiopure Z-isomers through the catalytic nonenzymatic kinetic resolution of racemic E-alkenes remains challenging. Herein, we disclose an unprecedented enantioselective E → Z isomerization mediated by a photoexcited chiral copper complex. This catalytic system enables kinetic resolution of 2-styrylpyrrolidines. This process is difficult to realize under thermal conditions. Mechanistic experiments and density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed that different overall sensitization rates of the substrate-catalyst complex of the two enantiomers led to the observed excellent kinetic resolution efficiency. This photochemical transformation expands the potential of kinetic resolution beyond their established ground-state reactivity, furnishing a novel reaction mode for enantioselective catalysis at its excited state.

In Vitro Reconstitution of Cinnamoyl Moiety Reveals Two Distinct Cyclases for Benzene Ring Formation.

Cinnamoyl-containing natural products (CCNPs) are a small class of bacterial metabolites with notable bioactivities. The biosynthesis of cinnamoyl moiety has been proposed to be assembled by an unusual highly reducing (HR) type II polyketide synthases (PKS). However, the biosynthetic route, especially the cyclization step for the benzene ring formation, remains unclear. In this work, we successfully reconstituted the pathway of cinnamoyl moiety in kitacinnamycin biosynthesis through a step-wise approach in vitro and demonstrated that a three-protein complex, Kcn17-Kcn18-Kcn19, can catalyze 6π-electrocyclization followed by dehydrogenation to form the benzene ring. We found that the three-protein homologues were widely distributed among 207 HR type II PKS biosynthetic gene clusters including five known CCNPs. In contrast, in the biosynthesis of youssoufene, a cinnamoyl-containing polyene, we identified that the benzene ring formation was accomplished by a distinct orphan protein. Thus, our work resolved the long-standing mystery in cinnamoyl biosynthesis and revealed two distinct enzymes that can synthesize benzene rings via polyene precursors.

Photoexcited Palladium-Initiated Remote Desaturation of N-Alkoxypyridinium Salts.

1,5-Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) is an effective strategy to achieve remote desaturation of nonfunctionalized alkanes. Herein, we report a photoinduced remote desaturation reaction of N-alkoxypyridinium salts, which serve as alkoxyl radical precursors. Mechanistic studies show that a single electron transfer between the excited palladium complex and a N-alkoxypyridinium salt initiates a radical chain process leading to desaturation of N-alkoxypyridinium salts. This chain mechanism is supported by the measurement of the quantum yield of this reaction (Φ = 82). This reaction is applicable to a range of N-alkoxypyridinium salts, including some complex molecule-derived ones.

Enantioselective Reductive Homocoupling of Allylic Acetates Enabled by Dual Photoredox/Palladium Catalysis: Access to C2-Symmetrical 1,5-Dienes.

Transition-metal-catalyzed reductive coupling reactions have emerged as powerful protocols to construct C-C bonds. However, the development of enantioselective C(sp3)-C(sp3) reductive coupling remains challenging. Herein, we report a highly regio-, diastereo-, and enantioselective reductive homocoupling of allylic acetates through cooperative palladium and photoredox catalysis using diisopropylethylamine or Hantzsch ester as a homogeneous organic reductant. This straightforward protocol enables the stereoselective construction of C(sp3)-C(sp3) bonds under mild reaction conditions. A series of C2-symmetrical chiral 1,5-dienes were easily prepared with excellent enantioselectivities (up to >99% ee), diastereoselectivities (up to >95:5 dr), and regioselectivities (up to >95:5 rr). The resultant chiral 1,5-dienes can be directly used as chiral ligands in asymmetric synthesis, and they can be also transformed into other valuable chiral ligands.

Diastereoselective and Stereodivergent Synthesis of 2-Cinnamylpyrrolines Enabled by Photoredox-Catalyzed Iminoalkenylation of Alkenes.

A photoredox-catalyzed iminoalkenylation of γ-alkenyl O-acyl oximes has been developed. Readily available alkenylboronic acids serve as alkenylation reagents, leading to densely functionalized pyrrolines. Both (E)- and (Z)-cinnamylpyrrolines are accessible depending on the reaction solvent. In dichloromethane, (E)-cinnamylpyrrolines are produced through a photoredox-mediated single-electron-transfer process. In tetrahydrofuran, (Z)-cinnamylpyrrolines are generated by photocatalytic contra-thermodynamic E-to-Z isomerization of (E)-cinnamylpyrrolines though an energy-transfer pathway. Two stereocenters are established with complete diastereoselectivity and only one diastereomer is isolated.

Remote C-C bond formation via visible light photoredox-catalyzed intramolecular hydrogen atom transfer.

Carbon-carbon bonds comprise the major framework of organic molecules, rendering their formation one of the most fundamental transformations in synthetic organic chemistry. Visible light photoredox catalysis has recently been established as a powerful technique to construct molecular architectures that would otherwise be inaccessible under mild conditions. Photoredox catalysis combined with intramolecular hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) can serve as a unique tool for achieving remote C-C bond formation. In this review, the recent advances in remote C-C bond formation via photoredox-catalyzed intramolecular HAT are summarized.

Distal radical migration strategy: an emerging synthetic means.

The remote radical migration strategy has gained considerable momentum. During the past three years, we have witnessed the rapid development of sustainable and practical C-C and C-H bond functionalization by means of long-distance 1,n-radical migration (n = 4, 5, 6) events. Its advent brings our chemical community a new platform to deal with the challenging migration transformations and thus complements the existing ionic-type migration protocols. In this review, the recent achievements in distal radical migration triggered C-C and C-H bond functionalization are summarized.

Enantioselective Allylic Alkylation with 4-Alkyl-1,4-dihydro-pyridines Enabled by Photoredox/Palladium Cocatalysis.

Highly regio- and enantioselective allylic alkylation has been achieved enabled by the merger of photoredox and palladium catalysis. In this dual catalytic process, alkyl radicals generated from 4-alkyl-1,4-dihydropyridines act as the coupling partners of the π-allyl palladium complexes. The generality of this method has been illustrated through the reaction of a variety of allyl esters with 4-alkyl-1,4-dihydropyridines. This mechanistically novel strategy expands the scope of the traditional Pd-catalyzed asymmetric allylic alkylation reaction and serves as its alternative and potential complement.

Functionalization of C-H Bonds by Photoredox Catalysis.

Visible-light photoredox catalysis has been successfully used in the functionalization of inert C-H bonds including C(sp2 )-H bonds of arenes and C(sp3 )-H bonds of aliphatic compounds over the past decade. These transformations are typically promoted by the process of single-electron-transfer (SET) between substrates and photo-excited photocatalyst upon visible light irradiation (household bulbs or LEDs). Compared with other synthetic strategies, such as the transition-metal catalysis and traditional radical reactions, visible-light photoredox approach has distinct advantages in terms of operational simplicity and practicability. Versatile direct functionalization of inert C(sp2 )-H and C(sp3 )-H bonds including alkylation, trifluoromethylation, arylation and amidation, has been achieved using this practical strategy.

Radical Alkylation of Imines with 4-Alkyl-1,4-dihydropyridines Enabled by Photoredox/Brønsted Acid Cocatalysis.

Radical alkylation of imines with 4-alkyl-1,4-dihydropyridines cocatalyzed by iridium/ruthenium complex and Brønsted acid under visible light irradiation has been achieved. Both aldimines and ketimines can undergo this transformation. Common functional groups, such as hydroxyl groups, ester, amide, ether, cyanide, and heterocycles, can be tolerated in this reaction. A variety of structurally diverse amines (57 examples) have been produced with up to 98% isolated yields using this method.

Synthesis of Quinolines through Three-Component Cascade Annulation of Aryl Diazonium Salts, Nitriles, and Alkynes.

An efficient and rapid synthesis of multiply substituted quinolines is described. This method is enabled by a three-component cascade annulation of readily available aryl diazonium salts, nitriles, and alkynes. This reaction is catalyst- and additive-free. Various aryl diazonium salts, nitriles, and alkynes can participate in this transformation, and the yields are up to 83%.

Aggregation-induced visible light absorption makes reactant 1,2-diisocyanoarenes act as photosensitizers in double radical isocyanide insertions.

The joint computational and experimental efforts reveal that the organic molecule 1,2-diisocyano-4,5-dimethylbenzene (1) acts as both a reactant and a photosensitizer (PS) in a metal-free reaction with perfluoroalkylhalide (2) to produce 2-perfluoroalkyl quinoxalines (3) under visible light. Both the π-π stacking aggregation in crystals and the solvation in various solvents of PS 1 exhibited visible-light absorption at 466 nm in spite of its smaller coefficient than that of the ultraviolet-light absorption. Such an aggregation-assisted visible-light absorption phenomenon is rationalized by theoretical calculations of the condensed-phase properties with the consideration of the explicit polarization effect from the neighboring molecules. Upon irradiation with different wavelengths, the emission colors changed from navy to bright yellow. Fluorescence lifetime measurements show that the emission of 1 comes from its singlet excited state. The aggregation induced emission when excited at 420 nm has a shorter lifetime (0.45 ns) than that of the emission from isolated molecules (2.71 ns) when excited at 381 nm. It is conceived that the aggregation assisted visible light absorption properties may be general in other photo-reactive molecules, such as 1,4-diisocyano-2,5-dimethylbenzene (4), 1,4-dicyanobenzene (5), and 1,4-diisocyanobenzene (6), which are widely used in many photochemical reactions in the absence of any external photosensitizer.

Visible-Light-Induced Direct Oxidative C-H Amidation of Heteroarenes with Sulfonamides.

A direct oxidative C-H amidation of heteroarenes with sulfonamides via nitrogen-centered radicals has been achieved. Nitrogen-centered radicals are directly generated from oxidative cleavage of N-H bonds under visible-light photoredox catalysis. Sulfonamides, which are easily accessed, are used as tunable nitrogen sources and bleach (aqueous NaClO solution) is used as the oxidant. A variety of heteroarenes, including indoles, pyrroles and benzofurans, can undergo this amidation with high yields (up to 92 %). These reactions are highly regioselective, and all the products are isolated as single regioisomer.

Synthesis of Tetracyclic Quinazolinones Using a Visible-Light-Promoted Radical Cascade Approach.

A practical approach for the synthesis of tetracyclic pyrroloquinazolines using photoredox strategy has been developed. The visible-light-promoted intramolecular single-electron-transfer process between photocatalyst and N-(2-iodobenzyl)-N-acylcyanamides is considered to be involved in this transformation. Targeted pyrroloquinazoline derivatives (15 examples) are presented in good isolated yields (30%-88%).

Synthesis of furo[3,2-c]coumarin derivatives using visible-light-promoted radical alkyne insertion with bromocoumarins.

The synthesis of privileged structures, which are potent drug candidates, is an impetus for drug discovery. The construction of heterocyclic framework furo[3,2-c]coumarins using a visible-light promoted photoredox neutral coupling of 3-bromo-4-hydroxycoumarins with commercially available alkynes has been reported. These reactions can be carried out at room temperature under visible light irradiation with good chemical yields. This work presents 17 furocoumarins, 12 of which are new. Three of the newly synthesized compounds show potent cytotoxicity, and one shows moderate acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity with IC50 values of 2.16 ± 0.13 µM.

Direct Aromatic C-H Trifluoromethylation via an Electron-Donor-Acceptor Complex.

A novel electron-donor-acceptor (EDA) complex-mediated direct C-H trifluoromethylation of arenes with Umemoto's reagent has been developed. This transformation has been enabled by an unprecedented EDA complex formed by Umemoto's reagent and an amine, which was supported by experiments and theoretical calculations. The radical-based methodology presented here allows to access highly-functionalized trifluoromethyl arenes in up to 81 % chemical yield.

Enantioselective synthesis of benzoindolizidine derivatives using chiral phase-transfer catalytic intramolecular domino aza-Michael addition/alkylation.

An efficient and enantioselective strategy to synthesize benzoindolizidines from α,ß-unsaturated amino ketones via domino intramolecular aza-Michael addition/alkylation was developed. These reactions were enabled by cinchona alkaloid-derived quaternary ammonium salts as the phase-transfer catalyst. A variety of benzoindolizidines were prepared in good yields (up to 93%) and enantioselectivities (up to 92.8:7.2 er).

Visible-light-promoted chloramination of olefins with N-chlorosulfonamide as both nitrogen and chlorine sources.

A visible-light-promoted chloramination of olefins is reported. N-Chlorosulfonamides serve as both nitrogen and chlorine sources. These reactions provide a simple, efficient, regioselective, and atom-economical method for the preparation of vicinal haloamine derivatives under mild reaction conditions. A variety of olefins were tolerated, and chloramination products were obtained in good yields.

Visible-light-promoted iminyl-radical formation from acyl oximes: a unified approach to pyridines, quinolines, and phenanthridines.

A unified strategy involving visible-light-induced iminyl-radical formation has been established for the construction of pyridines, quinolines, and phenanthridines from acyl oximes. With fac-[Ir(ppy)3 ] as a photoredox catalyst, the acyl oximes were converted by 1 e(-) reduction into iminyl radical intermediates, which then underwent intramolecular homolytic aromatic substitution (HAS) to give the N-containing arenes. These reactions proceeded with a broad range of substrates at room temperature in high yield. This strategy of visible-light-induced iminyl-radical formation was successfully applied to a five-step concise synthesis of benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloids.