Viral and host factors related to the clinical outcome of COVID-19.

In December 2019, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by the new coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was identified in Wuhan (Hubei province, China)1; it soon spread across the world. In this ongoing pandemic, public health concerns and the urgent need for effective therapeutic measures require a deep understanding of the epidemiology, transmissibility and pathogenesis of COVID-19. Here we analysed clinical, molecular and immunological data from 326 patients with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in Shanghai. The genomic sequences of SARS-CoV-2, assembled from 112 high-quality samples together with sequences in the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID) dataset, showed a stable evolution and suggested that there were two major lineages with differential exposure history during the early phase of the outbreak in Wuhan. Nevertheless, they exhibited similar virulence and clinical outcomes. Lymphocytopenia, especially reduced CD4+ and CD8+ T cell counts upon hospital admission, was predictive of disease progression. High levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 during treatment were observed in patients with severe or critical disease and correlated with decreased lymphocyte count. The determinants of disease severity seemed to stem mostly from host factors such as age and lymphocytopenia (and its associated cytokine storm), whereas viral genetic variation did not significantly affect outcomes.

Identification of a membrane-associated element (MAE) in the C-terminal region of SARS-CoV-2 nsp6 that is essential for viral replication.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has rapidly spread worldwide since its emergence in late 2019. Its ongoing evolution poses challenges for antiviral drug development. Coronavirus nsp6, a multiple-spanning transmembrane protein, participates in the biogenesis of the viral replication complex, which accommodates the viral replication-transcription complex. The roles of its structural domains in viral replication are not well studied. Herein, we predicted the structure of the SARS-CoV-2 nsp6 protein using AlphaFold2 and identified a highly folded C-terminal region (nsp6C) downstream of the transmembrane helices. The enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-fused nsp6C was found to cluster in the cytoplasm and associate with membranes. Functional mapping identified a minimal membrane-associated element (MAE) as the region from amino acids 237 to 276 (LGV-KLL), which is mainly composed of the α-helix H1 and the α-helix H2; the latter exhibits characteristics of an amphipathic helix (AH). Mutagenesis studies and membrane flotation experiments demonstrate that AH-like H2 is required for MAE-mediated membrane association. This MAE was functionally conserved across MERS-CoV, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-229E, HCoV-HKU1, and HCoV-NL63, all capable of mediating membrane association. In a SARS-CoV-2 replicon system, mutagenesis studies of H2 and replacements of H1 and H2 with their homologous counterparts demonstrated requirements of residues on both sides of the H2 and properly paired H1-H2 for MAE-mediated membrane association and viral replication. Notably, mutations I266A and K274A significantly attenuated viral replication without dramatically affecting membrane association, suggesting a dual role of the MAE in viral replication: mediating membrane association as well as participating in protein-protein interactions.IMPORTANCESevere acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) assembles a double-membrane vesicle (DMV) by the viral non-structural proteins for viral replication. Understanding the mechanisms of the DMV assembly is of paramount importance for antiviral development. Nsp6, a multiple-spanning transmembrane protein, plays an important role in the DMV biogenesis. Herein, we predicted the nsp6 structure of SARS-CoV-2 and other human coronaviruses using AlphaFold2 and identified a putative membrane-associated element (MAE) in the highly conserved C-terminal regions of nsp6. Experimentally, we verified a functionally conserved minimal MAE composed of two α-helices, the H1, and the amphipathic helix-like H2. Mutagenesis studies confirmed the requirement of H2 for MAE-mediated membrane association and viral replication and demonstrated a dual role of the MAE in viral replication, by mediating membrane association and participating in residue-specific interactions. This functionally conserved MAE may serve as a novel anti-viral target.

Exosomes mediate the cell-to-cell transmission of IFN-α-induced antiviral activity.

The cell-to-cell transmission of viral resistance is a potential mechanism for amplifying the interferon-induced antiviral response. In this study, we report that interferon-α (IFN-α) induced the transfer of resistance to hepatitis B virus (HBV) from nonpermissive liver nonparenchymal cells (LNPCs) to permissive hepatocytes via exosomes. Exosomes from IFN-α-treated LNPCs were rich in molecules with antiviral activity. Moreover, exosomes from LNPCs were internalized by hepatocytes, which mediated the intercellular transfer of antiviral molecules. Finally, we found that exosomes also contributed to the antiviral response of IFN-α to mouse hepatitis virus A59 and adenovirus in mice. Thus, we propose an antiviral mechanism of IFN-α activity that involves the induction and intercellular transfer of antiviral molecules via exosomes.

Modulation of monocyte activity by hepatocellular MicroRNA delivery through HBsAg particles: Implications for pathobiology of chronic hepatitis B.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: HBsAg serves as an important immune-modulatory factor in chronic hepatitis B. One aspect of such modulation may act through monocytes, which are the major Ag-presenting cells taking up HBsAg. There is evidence for the encapsulation of hepatocellular microRNAs (miRNAs) by HBsAg particles, while its pathobiological significance is unclear. Here, we characterized the miRNA profile in patients with chronic hepatitis B and probed their association with liver inflammation. APPROACHES AND RESULTS: We collected plasma from patients that are treatment-naive with chronic hepatitis B (n = 110) and quantified total/HBsAg-enveloped miRNAs by qRT-PCR and plasma cytokines by ELISA. The biological effects of HBsAg-delivered miRNAs in monocytes were evaluated using multiple approaches. The clinical significance of candidate miRNAs and cytokines was corroborated in patients with HBV-associated advanced liver diseases. The plasma miRNA profile showed 2 major clusters, one significantly associated with HBsAg titer and the other correlated with liver inflammation. Among HBsAg-carried miRNAs, miR-939 displayed the most significant correlation with IL-8. Mechanistically, miR-939 in subviral particles enters monocytes and significantly augments IL-8 production through the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38 signaling pathway. Finally, the findings that miR-939 positively correlated with IL-8 level and inflammation/fibrosis stage in the cohort of HBV-associated advanced liver diseases support its causative role in the progression of liver diseases. CONCLUSIONS: HBsAg particles carry hepatocellular miRNAs, including miR-939, which enter monocytes and alter their functional status, such as IL-8 secretion. Our findings demonstrate that the HBsAg-miR-939-IL-8 axis may play a crucial role in HBV-induced hepatic necro-inflammation and the progression of advanced liver diseases.

Differential interferon-α subtype induced immune signatures are associated with suppression of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Type I interferons (IFN-I) exert pleiotropic biological effects during viral infections, balancing virus control versus immune-mediated pathologies, and have been successfully employed for the treatment of viral diseases. Humans express 12 IFN-alpha (α) subtypes, which activate downstream signaling cascades and result in distinct patterns of immune responses and differential antiviral responses. Inborn errors in IFN-I immunity and the presence of anti-IFN autoantibodies account for very severe courses of COVID-19; therefore, early administration of IFN-I may be protective against life-threatening disease. Here we comprehensively analyzed the antiviral activity of all IFNα subtypes against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) to identify the underlying immune signatures and explore their therapeutic potential. Prophylaxis of primary human airway epithelial cells (hAEC) with different IFNα subtypes during SARS-CoV-2 infection uncovered distinct functional classes with high, intermediate, and low antiviral IFNs. In particular, IFNα5 showed superior antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro and in SARS-CoV-2-infected mice in vivo. Dose dependency studies further displayed additive effects upon coadministration with the broad antiviral drug remdesivir in cell culture. Transcriptomic analysis of IFN-treated hAEC revealed different transcriptional signatures, uncovering distinct, intersecting, and prototypical genes of individual IFNα subtypes. Global proteomic analyses systematically assessed the abundance of specific antiviral key effector molecules which are involved in IFN-I signaling pathways, negative regulation of viral processes, and immune effector processes for the potent antiviral IFNα5. Taken together, our data provide a systemic, multimodular definition of antiviral host responses mediated by defined IFN-I. This knowledge will support the development of novel therapeutic approaches against SARS-CoV-2.

Chimeric antigen receptors of HBV envelope proteins inhibit hepatitis B surface antigen secretion.

OBJECTIVES: Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) caused by HBV infection greatly increases the risk of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) plays critical roles in the pathogenesis of CHB. HBsAg loss is the key indicator for cure of CHB, but is rarely achieved by current approved anti-HBV drugs. Therefore, novel anti-HBV strategies are urgently needed to achieve sustained HBsAg loss. DESIGN: We developed multiple chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) based on single-chain variable fragments (scFvs, namely MA18/7-scFv and G12-scFv), respectively, targeting HBV large and small envelope proteins. Their impacts on HBsAg secretion and HBV infection, and the underlying mechanisms, were extensively investigated using various cell culture models and HBV mouse models. RESULTS: After secretory signal peptide mediated translocation into endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and secretory pathway, MA18/7-scFv and CARs blocked HBV infection and virion secretion. G12-scFv preferentially inhibited virion secretion, while both its CAR formats and crystallisable fragment (Fc)-attached versions blocked HBsAg secretion. G12-scFv and G12-CAR arrested HBV envelope proteins mainly in ER and potently inhibited HBV budding. Furthermore, G12-scFv-Fc and G12-CAR-Fc strongly suppressed serum HBsAg up to 130-fold in HBV mouse models. The inhibitory effect lasted for at least 8 weeks when delivered by an adeno-associated virus vector. CONCLUSION: CARs possess direct antiviral activity, besides the well-known application in T-cell therapy. Fc attached G12-scFv and G12-CARs could provide a novel approach for reducing circulating HBsAg.

Highlights from the 2023 International Meeting on the Molecular Biology of Hepatitis B virus.

Since its discovery in 1965, our understanding of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication cycle and host immune responses has increased markedly. In contrast, our knowledge of the molecular biology of hepatitis delta virus (HDV), which is associated with more severe liver disease, is less well understood. Despite the progress made, critical gaps remain in our knowledge of HBV and HDV replication and the mechanisms underlying viral persistence and evasion of host immunity. The International HBV Meeting is the leading annual scientific meeting for presenting the latest advances in HBV and HDV molecular virology, immunology, and epidemiology. In 2023, the annual scientific meeting was held in Kobe, Japan and this review summarises some of the advances presented at the Meeting and lists gaps in our knowledge that may facilitate the development of new therapies.

Correction: STAT6 degradation and ubiquitylated TRIML2 are essential for activation of human oncogenic herpesvirus.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007416.].

Functional and genetic analysis of viral receptor ACE2 orthologs reveals a broad potential host range of SARS-CoV-2.

The pandemic of COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, is a major global health threat. Epidemiological studies suggest that bats (Rhinolophus affinis) are the natural zoonotic reservoir for SARS-CoV-2. However, the host range of SARS-CoV-2 and intermediate hosts that facilitate its transmission to humans remain unknown. The interaction of coronavirus with its host receptor is a key genetic determinant of host range and cross-species transmission. SARS-CoV-2 uses angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the receptor to enter host cells in a species-dependent manner. In this study, we characterized the ability of ACE2 from diverse species to support viral entry. By analyzing the conservation of five residues in two virus-binding hotspots of ACE2 (hotspot 31Lys and hotspot 353Lys), we predicted 80 ACE2 proteins from mammals that could potentially mediate SARS-CoV-2 entry. We chose 48 ACE2 orthologs among them for functional analysis, and showed that 44 of these orthologs-including domestic animals, pets, livestock, and animals commonly found in zoos and aquaria-could bind the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and support viral entry. In contrast, New World monkey ACE2 orthologs could not bind the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and support viral entry. We further identified the genetic determinant of New World monkey ACE2 that restricts viral entry using genetic and functional analyses. These findings highlight a potentially broad host tropism of SARS-CoV-2 and suggest that SARS-CoV-2 might be distributed much more widely than previously recognized, underscoring the necessity to monitor susceptible hosts to prevent future outbreaks.

Anti-HBV Activities of Cembranoids from the South China Sea Soft Coral Sinularia pedunculata and Their Structure Activity Relationship.

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection is a global public health challenge that seriously endangers human health. Soft coral, as a major source of terpenoids, contains many structurally novel and highly bioactive compounds. In previous studies, it has been demonstrated that cembranoid-type diterpenoids showed significant anti-inflammatory and anti-colorectal cancer activities. In this study, cembranoids isolated from Sinularia pedunculata was found with anti-HBV activity for the first time. Among them, compound 6 showed significant anti-HBV activity with an IC50 value of 5.57 µM without cytotoxicity. We analysed the preliminary structure-activity relationship (SAR). Furthermore, it is demonstrated that compound 6 can accelerate the formation of capsid, inhibit HBeAg, HBV core particle DNA, HBV total RNA and pregenomic RNA in a dose dependent manner. We also confirmed the anti-HBV activity in HepG2-NTCP infection system. Finally, we find the anti-HBV mechanism of these compounds by inhibiting the ENI/Xp enhancer/promoter.

Cross-reactive antibody response to Monkeypox virus surface proteins in a small proportion of individuals with and without Chinese smallpox vaccination history.

BACKGROUND: After the eradication of smallpox in China in 1979, vaccination with the vaccinia virus (VACV) Tiantan strain for the general population was stopped in 1980. As the monkeypox virus (MPXV) is rapidly spreading in the world, we would like to investigate whether the individuals with historic VACV Tiantan strain vaccination, even after more than 40 years, could still provide ELISA reactivity and neutralizing protection; and whether the unvaccinated individuals have no antibody reactivity against MPXV at all. RESULTS: We established serologic ELISA to measure the serum anti-MPXV titer by using immunodominant MPXV surface proteins, A35R, B6R, A29L, and M1R. A small proportion of individuals (born before 1980) with historic VACV Tiantan strain vaccination exhibited serum ELISA cross-reactivity against these MPXV surface proteins. Consistently, these donors also showed ELISA seropositivity and serum neutralization against VACV Tiantan strain. However, surprisingly, some unvaccinated young adults (born after 1980) also showed potent serum ELISA activity against MPXV proteins, possibly due to their past infection by some self-limiting Orthopoxvirus (OPXV). CONCLUSIONS: We report the serum ELISA cross-reactivity against MPXV surface protein in a small proportion of individuals both with and without VACV Tiantan strain vaccination history. Combined with our serum neutralization assay against VACV and the recent literature about mice vaccinated with VACV Tiantan strain, our study confirmed the anti-MPXV cross-reactivity and cross-neutralization of smallpox vaccine using VACV Tiantan strain. Therefore, it is necessary to restart the smallpox vaccination program in high risk populations.

Susceptibilities of Human ACE2 Genetic Variants in Coronavirus Infection.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has resulted in more than 235 million cases worldwide and 4.8 million deaths (October 2021), with various incidences and mortalities among regions/ethnicities. The coronaviruses SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and HCoV-NL63 utilize the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the receptor to enter cells. We hypothesized that the genetic variability in ACE2 may contribute to the variable clinical outcomes of COVID-19. To test this hypothesis, we first conducted an in silico investigation of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the coding region of ACE2. We then applied an integrated approach of genetics, biochemistry, and virology to explore the capacity of select ACE2 variants to bind coronavirus spike proteins and mediate viral entry. We identified the ACE2 D355N variant that restricts the spike protein-ACE2 interaction and consequently limits infection both in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, ACE2 polymorphisms could modulate susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, which may lead to variable disease severity. IMPORTANCE There is considerable variation in disease severity among patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Human genetic variation can affect disease outcome, and the coronaviruses SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and HCoV-NL63 utilize human ACE2 as the receptor to enter cells. We found that several missense ACE2 single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) that showed significantly altered binding with the spike proteins of SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and NL63-HCoV. We identified an ACE2 SNP, D355N, that restricts the spike protein-ACE2 interaction and consequently has the potential to protect individuals against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our study highlights that ACE2 polymorphisms could impact human susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, which may contribute to ethnic and geographical differences in SARS-CoV-2 spread and pathogenicity.

Probing the spatiotemporal patterns of HBV multiplication reveals novel features of its subcellular processes.

Through evolution, Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) developed highly intricate mechanisms exploiting host resources for its multiplication within a constrained genetic coding capacity. Yet a clear picture of viral hitchhiking of cellular processes with spatial resolution is still largely unsolved. Here, by leveraging bDNA-based fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) combined with immunofluorescence, we developed a microscopic approach for multiplex detection of viral nucleic acids and proteins, which enabled us to probe some of the key aspects of HBV life cycle. We confirmed the slow kinetics and revealed the high variability of viral replication at single-cell level. We directly visualized HBV minichromosome in contact with acetylated histone 3 and RNA polymerase II and observed HBV-induced degradation of Smc5/6 complex only in primary hepatocytes. We quantified the frequency of HBV pregenomic RNAs occupied by translating ribosome or capsids. Statistics at molecular level suggested a rapid translation phase followed by a slow encapsidation and maturation phase. Finally, the roles of microtubules (MTs) on nucleocapsid assembly and virion morphogenesis were analyzed. Disruption of MTs resulted in the perinuclear retention of nucleocapsid. Meanwhile, large multivesicular body (MVB) formation was significantly disturbed as evidenced by the increase in number and decrease in volume of CD63+ vesicles, thus inhibiting mature virion secretion. In conclusion, these data provided spatially resolved molecular snapshots in the context of specific subcellular activities. The heterogeneity observed at single-cell level afforded valuable molecular insights which are otherwise unavailable from bulk measurements.

Comparative analysis reveals the species-specific genetic determinants of ACE2 required for SARS-CoV-2 entry.

Coronavirus interaction with its viral receptor is a primary genetic determinant of host range and tissue tropism. SARS-CoV-2 utilizes ACE2 as the receptor to enter host cell in a species-specific manner. We and others have previously shown that ACE2 orthologs from New World monkey, koala and mouse cannot interact with SARS-CoV-2 to mediate viral entry, and this defect can be restored by humanization of the restrictive residues in New World monkey ACE2. To better understand the genetic determinants behind the ability of ACE2 orthologs to support viral entry, we compared koala and mouse ACE2 sequences with that of human and identified the key residues in koala and mouse ACE2 that restrict viral receptor activity. Humanization of these critical residues rendered both koala and mouse ACE2 capable of binding the spike protein and facilitating viral entry. Our study shed more lights into the genetic determinants of ACE2 as the functional receptor of SARS-CoV-2, which facilitates our understanding of viral entry.

HBV covalently closed circular DNA minichromosomes in distinct epigenetic transcriptional states differ in their vulnerability to damage.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: HBV covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) is a major obstacle for a cure of chronic hepatitis B. Accumulating evidence suggests that epigenetic modifications regulate the transcriptional activity of cccDNA minichromosomes. However, it remains unclear how the epigenetic state of cccDNA affects its stability. APPROACHES AND RESULTS: By using HBV infection cell models and in vitro and in vivo recombinant cccDNA (rcccDNA) and HBVcircle models, the reduction rate of HBV cccDNA and the efficacy of apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme catalytic subunit 3A (APOBEC3A)-mediated and CRISPR/CRISPR-associated 9 (Cas9)-mediated cccDNA targeting were compared between cccDNAs with distinct transcriptional activities. Interferon-α treatment and hepatitis B x protein (HBx) deletion were applied as two strategies for cccDNA repression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and micrococcal nuclease assays were performed to determine the epigenetic pattern of cccDNA. HBV cccDNA levels remained stable in nondividing hepatocytes; however, they were significantly reduced during cell division, and the reduction rate was similar between cccDNAs in transcriptionally active and transcriptionally repressed states. Strikingly, HBV rcccDNA without HBx expression exhibited a significantly longer persistence in mice. The cccDNA with low transcriptional activity exhibited an epigenetically inactive pattern and was more difficult to access by APOBEC3A and engineered CRISPR-Cas9. The epigenetic regulator activating cccDNA increased its vulnerability to APOBEC3A. CONCLUSIONS: HBV cccDNA minichromosomes in distinct epigenetic transcriptional states showed a similar reduction rate during cell division but significantly differed in their accessibility and vulnerability to targeted nucleases and antiviral agents. Epigenetic sensitization of cccDNA makes it more susceptible to damage and may potentially contribute to an HBV cure.

HBV induced the discharge of intrinsic antiviral miRNAs in HBV-replicating hepatocytes via extracellular vesicles to facilitate its replication.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV), which can cause chronic hepatitis B, has sophisticated machinery to establish persistent infection. Here, we report a novel mechanism whereby HBV changed miRNA packaging into extracellular vesicles (EVs) to facilitate replication. Disruption of the miRNA machinery in hepatocytes enhanced HBV replication, indicating an intrinsic miRNA-mediated antiviral state. Interference with EV release only decreased HBV replication if there was normal miRNA biogenesis, suggesting a possible link between HBV replication and EV-associated miRNAs. Microarray and qPCR analyses revealed that HBV replication changed miRNA expression in EVs. EV incubation, transfection of miRNA mimics and inhibitors, and functional pathway and network analyses showed that EV miRNAs are associated with antiviral function, suggesting that to promote survival HBV coopts EVs to excrete anti-HBV intracellular miRNAs. These data suggest a novel mechanism by which HBV maintains its replication, which has therapeutic implications.

The role of hepatitis B virus surface proteins in regulating the maturation and secretion of complete and incomplete virions.

The expression of various forms of hepatitis B virus (HBV) surface proteins regulates the release of mature virion, but whether they affect the release of other incomplete viral particles, such as naked capsid, is not clear. Here, by stable overexpression of large or middle/small hepatitis B surface proteins (LHBs, M/SHBs) in HepAD38 cells, we evaluated their effects on the release of complete and incomplete viral particles. Overproduction of LHBs inhibited the release of all surface proteins, which increased the ratio of naked capsids/virions. This effect was accompanied by the elevated extracellular HBV RNA. On the other hand, overexpression of M/SHBs greatly improved the secretion of enveloped viral and subviral particles. In situ visualization of viral DNA and LHBs revealed intracellular retention of mature virions when LHBs were overexpressed. These results indicate that the molecular decision on secretion of enveloped or unenveloped viral particles is modulated by the intracellular ratio of large, middle and small surface antigens. This mechanism may be relevant in the progression and resolution of HBV-induced chronic liver disease.

Functional Comparison of Interferon-α Subtypes Reveals Potent Hepatitis B Virus Suppression by a Concerted Action of Interferon-α and Interferon-γ Signaling.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Interferon (IFN)-α, composed of numerous subtypes, plays a crucial role in immune defense. As the most studied subtype, IFN-α2 has been used for treating chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, with advantages of finite treatment duration and sustained virologic response, but its efficacy remains relatively low. This study aimed to screen for IFN-α subtypes with the highest anti-HBV potency and to characterize mechanisms of IFN-α-mediated HBV restriction. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Using cell culture-based HBV infection systems and a human-liver chimeric mouse model, IFN-α subtype-mediated antiviral response and signaling activation were comprehensively analyzed. IFN-α14 was identified as the most effective subtype in suppression of HBV covalently closed circular DNA transcription and HBV e antigen/HBV surface antigen production, with median inhibitory concentration values approximately 100-fold lower than those of the conventional IFN-α2. IFN-α14 alone elicited IFN-α and IFN-γ signaling crosstalk in a manner similar to the combined use of IFN-α2 and IFN-γ, inducing multiple potent antiviral effectors, which synergistically restricted HBV replication. Guanylate binding protein 5, one of the most differentially expressed genes between IFN-α14-treated and IFN-α2-treated liver cells, was identified as an HBV restriction factor. A strong IFN-α-IFN-α receptor subunit 1 interaction determines the anti-HBV activity of IFN-α. The in vivo anti-HBV activity of IFN-α14 and treatment-related transcriptional patterns were further confirmed, and few adverse effects were observed. CONCLUSIONS: A concerted IFN-α and IFN-γ response in liver, which could be efficiently elicited by IFN-α subtype 14, is associated with potent HBV suppression. These data deepen the understanding of the divergent activities of IFN-α subtypes and the mechanism underlying the synergism between IFN-α and IFN-γ signaling, with implications for improved IFN therapy and HBV curative strategies.

Identification of viral SIM-SUMO2-interaction inhibitors for treating primary effusion lymphoma.

Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is an aggressive B-cell malignancy without effective treatment, and caused by the infection of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), predominantly in its latent form. Previously we showed that the SUMO2-interacting motif within the viral latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANASIM) is essential for establishment and maintenance of KSHV latency. Here, we developed a luciferase based live-cell reporter system to screen inhibitors selectively targeting the interaction between LANASIM and SUMO2. Cambogin, a bioactive natural product isolated from the Garcinia genus (a traditional herbal medicine used for cancer treatment), was obtained from the reporter system screening to efficiently inhibit the association of SUMO2 with LANASIM, in turn reducing the viral episome DNA copy number for establishment and maintenance of KSHV latent infection at a low concentration (nM). Importantly, Cambogin treatments not only specifically inhibited proliferation of KSHV-latently infected cells in vitro, but also induced regression of PEL tumors in a xenograft mouse model. This study has identified Cambogin as a novel therapeutic agent for treating PEL as well as eliminating persistent infection of oncogenic herpesvirus.

AMPK and Akt/mTOR signalling pathways participate in glucose-mediated regulation of hepatitis B virus replication and cellular autophagy.

A growing consensus indicates that host metabolism plays a vital role in viral infections. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection occurs in hepatocytes with active glucose metabolism and may be regulated by cellular metabolism. We addressed the question whether and how glucose regulates HBV replication in hepatocytes. The low glucose concentration at 5 mM significantly promoted HBV replication via enhanced transcription and autophagy when compared with higher glucose concentrations (10 and 25 mM). At low glucose concentration, AMPK activity was increased and led to ULK1 phosphorylation at Ser 555 and LC3-II accumulation. By contrast, the mTOR pathway was activated by high glucose concentrations, resulting in reduced HBV replication. mTOR inhibition by rapamycin reversed negative effects of high glucose concentrations on HBV replication, suggesting that low glucose concentration promotes HBV replication by stimulating the AMPK/mTOR-ULK1-autophagy axis. Consistently, we found that glucose transporters inhibition using phloretin also enhanced HBV replication via increased AMPK/mTOR-ULK1-induced autophagy. Surprisingly, the glucose analogue 2-deoxy-D-glucose reduced HBV replication through activating the Akt/mTOR signalling pathway also at the low glucose concentrations. Our study reveals that glucose is an important factor for the HBV life cycle by regulating HBV transcription and posttranscriptional steps of HBV replication via cellular autophagy.