ABP1 mediates auxin inhibition of clathrin-dependent endocytosis in Arabidopsis.

Spatial distribution of the plant hormone auxin regulates multiple aspects of plant development. These self-regulating auxin gradients are established by the action of PIN auxin transporters, whose activity is regulated by their constitutive cycling between the plasma membrane and endosomes. Here, we show that auxin signaling by the auxin receptor AUXIN-BINDING PROTEIN 1 (ABP1) inhibits the clathrin-mediated internalization of PIN proteins. ABP1 acts as a positive factor in clathrin recruitment to the plasma membrane, thereby promoting endocytosis. Auxin binding to ABP1 interferes with this action and leads to the inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Our study demonstrates that ABP1 mediates a nontranscriptional auxin signaling that regulates the evolutionarily conserved process of clathrin-mediated endocytosis and suggests that this signaling may be essential for the developmentally important feedback of auxin on its own transport.

cis-Cinnamic Acid Is a Novel, Natural Auxin Efflux Inhibitor That Promotes Lateral Root Formation.

Auxin steers numerous physiological processes in plants, making the tight control of its endogenous levels and spatiotemporal distribution a necessity. This regulation is achieved by different mechanisms, including auxin biosynthesis, metabolic conversions, degradation, and transport. Here, we introduce cis-cinnamic acid (c-CA) as a novel and unique addition to a small group of endogenous molecules affecting in planta auxin concentrations. c-CA is the photo-isomerization product of the phenylpropanoid pathway intermediate trans-CA (t-CA). When grown on c-CA-containing medium, an evolutionary diverse set of plant species were shown to exhibit phenotypes characteristic for high auxin levels, including inhibition of primary root growth, induction of root hairs, and promotion of adventitious and lateral rooting. By molecular docking and receptor binding assays, we showed that c-CA itself is neither an auxin nor an anti-auxin, and auxin profiling data revealed that c-CA does not significantly interfere with auxin biosynthesis. Single cell-based auxin accumulation assays showed that c-CA, and not t-CA, is a potent inhibitor of auxin efflux. Auxin signaling reporters detected changes in spatiotemporal distribution of the auxin response along the root of c-CA-treated plants, and long-distance auxin transport assays showed no inhibition of rootward auxin transport. Overall, these results suggest that the phenotypes of c-CA-treated plants are the consequence of a local change in auxin accumulation, induced by the inhibition of auxin efflux. This work reveals a novel mechanism how plants may regulate auxin levels and adds a novel, naturally occurring molecule to the chemical toolbox for the studies of auxin homeostasis.

A novel putative auxin carrier family regulates intracellular auxin homeostasis in plants.

The phytohormone auxin acts as a prominent signal, providing, by its local accumulation or depletion in selected cells, a spatial and temporal reference for changes in the developmental program. The distribution of auxin depends on both auxin metabolism (biosynthesis, conjugation and degradation) and cellular auxin transport. We identified in silico a novel putative auxin transport facilitator family, called PIN-LIKES (PILS). Here we illustrate that PILS proteins are required for auxin-dependent regulation of plant growth by determining the cellular sensitivity to auxin. PILS proteins regulate intracellular auxin accumulation at the endoplasmic reticulum and thus auxin availability for nuclear auxin signalling. PILS activity affects the level of endogenous auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), presumably via intracellular accumulation and metabolism. Our findings reveal that the transport machinery to compartmentalize auxin within the cell is of an unexpected molecular complexity and demonstrate this compartmentalization to be functionally important for a number of developmental processes.

7-Rhamnosylated Flavonols Modulate Homeostasis of the Plant Hormone Auxin and Affect Plant Development.

Flavonols are a group of secondary metabolites that affect diverse cellular processes. They are considered putative negative regulators of the transport of the phytohormone auxin, by which they influence auxin distribution and concomitantly take part in the control of plant organ development. Flavonols are accumulating in a large number of glycosidic forms. Whether these have distinct functions and diverse cellular targets is not well understood. The rol1-2 mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana is characterized by a modified flavonol glycosylation profile that is inducing changes in auxin transport and growth defects in shoot tissues. To determine whether specific flavonol glycosides are responsible for these phenotypes, a suppressor screen was performed on the rol1-2 mutant, resulting in the identification of an allelic series of UGT89C1, a gene encoding a flavonol 7-O-rhamnosyltransferase. A detailed analysis revealed that interfering with flavonol rhamnosylation increases the concentration of auxin precursors and auxin metabolites, whereas auxin transport is not affected. This finding provides an additional level of complexity to the possible ways by which flavonols influence auxin distribution and suggests that flavonol glycosides play an important role in regulating plant development.

The Allelochemical MDCA Inhibits Lignification and Affects Auxin Homeostasis.

The phenylpropanoid 3,4-(methylenedioxy)cinnamic acid (MDCA) is a plant-derived compound first extracted from roots of Asparagus officinalis and further characterized as an allelochemical. Later on, MDCA was identified as an efficient inhibitor of 4-COUMARATE-CoA LIGASE (4CL), a key enzyme of the general phenylpropanoid pathway. By blocking 4CL, MDCA affects the biosynthesis of many important metabolites, which might explain its phytotoxicity. To decipher the molecular basis of the allelochemical activity of MDCA, we evaluated the effect of this compound on Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings. Metabolic profiling revealed that MDCA is converted in planta into piperonylic acid (PA), an inhibitor of CINNAMATE-4-HYDROXYLASE (C4H), the enzyme directly upstream of 4CL. The inhibition of C4H was also reflected in the phenolic profile of MDCA-treated plants. Treatment of in vitro grown plants resulted in an inhibition of primary root growth and a proliferation of lateral and adventitious roots. These observed growth defects were not the consequence of lignin perturbation, but rather the result of disturbing auxin homeostasis. Based on DII-VENUS quantification and direct measurement of cellular auxin transport, we concluded that MDCA disturbs auxin gradients by interfering with auxin efflux. In addition, mass spectrometry was used to show that MDCA triggers auxin biosynthesis, conjugation, and catabolism. A similar shift in auxin homeostasis was found in the c4h mutant ref3-2, indicating that MDCA triggers a cross talk between the phenylpropanoid and auxin biosynthetic pathways independent from the observed auxin efflux inhibition. Altogether, our data provide, to our knowledge, a novel molecular explanation for the phytotoxic properties of MDCA.

Evolutionary Conserved Cysteines Function as cis-Acting Regulators of Arabidopsis PIN-FORMED 2 Distribution.

Coordination of plant development requires modulation of growth responses that are under control of the phytohormone auxin. PIN-FORMED plasma membrane proteins, involved in intercellular transport of the growth regulator, are key to the transmission of such auxin signals and subject to multilevel surveillance mechanisms, including reversible post-translational modifications. Apart from well-studied PIN protein modifications, namely phosphorylation and ubiquitylation, no further post-translational modifications have been described so far. Here, we focused on root-specific Arabidopsis PIN2 and explored functional implications of two evolutionary conserved cysteines, by a combination of in silico and molecular approaches. PIN2 sequence alignments and modeling predictions indicated that both cysteines are facing the cytoplasm and therefore would be accessible to redox status-controlled modifications. Notably, mutant pin2C-A alleles retained functionality, demonstrated by their ability to almost completely rescue defects of a pin2 null allele, whereas high resolution analysis of pin2C-A localization revealed increased intracellular accumulation, and altered protein distribution within plasma membrane micro-domains. The observed effects of cysteine replacements on root growth and PIN2 localization are consistent with a model in which redox status-dependent cysteine modifications participate in the regulation of PIN2 mobility, thereby fine-tuning polar auxin transport.

PIN6 auxin transporter at endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membrane mediates auxin homeostasis and organogenesis in Arabidopsis.

Plant development mediated by the phytohormone auxin depends on tightly controlled cellular auxin levels at its target tissue that are largely established by intercellular and intracellular auxin transport mediated by PIN auxin transporters. Among the eight members of the Arabidopsis PIN family, PIN6 is the least characterized candidate. In this study we generated functional, fluorescent protein-tagged PIN6 proteins and performed comprehensive analysis of their subcellular localization and also performed a detailed functional characterization of PIN6 and its developmental roles. The localization study of PIN6 revealed a dual localization at the plasma membrane (PM) and endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Transport and metabolic profiling assays in cultured cells and Arabidopsis strongly suggest that PIN6 mediates both auxin transport across the PM and intracellular auxin homeostasis, including the regulation of free auxin and auxin conjugates levels. As evidenced by the loss- and gain-of-function analysis, the complex function of PIN6 in auxin transport and homeostasis is required for auxin distribution during lateral and adventitious root organogenesis and for progression of these developmental processes. These results illustrate a unique position of PIN6 within the family of PIN auxin transporters and further add complexity to the developmentally crucial process of auxin transport.

Regulation of auxin homeostasis and gradients in Arabidopsis roots through the formation of the indole-3-acetic acid catabolite 2-oxindole-3-acetic acid.

The native auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), is a major regulator of plant growth and development. Its nonuniform distribution between cells and tissues underlies the spatiotemporal coordination of many developmental events and responses to environmental stimuli. The regulation of auxin gradients and the formation of auxin maxima/minima most likely involve the regulation of both metabolic and transport processes. In this article, we have demonstrated that 2-oxindole-3-acetic acid (oxIAA) is a major primary IAA catabolite formed in Arabidopsis thaliana root tissues. OxIAA had little biological activity and was formed rapidly and irreversibly in response to increases in auxin levels. We further showed that there is cell type-specific regulation of oxIAA levels in the Arabidopsis root apex. We propose that oxIAA is an important element in the regulation of output from auxin gradients and, therefore, in the regulation of auxin homeostasis and response mechanisms.

Auxin-binding pocket of ABP1 is crucial for its gain-of-function cellular and developmental roles.

The plant hormone auxin is a key regulator of plant growth and development. Auxin levels are sensed and interpreted by distinct receptor systems that activate a broad range of cellular responses. The Auxin-Binding Protein1 (ABP1) that has been identified based on its ability to bind auxin with high affinity is a prime candidate for the extracellular receptor responsible for mediating a range of auxin effects, in particular, the fast non-transcriptional ones. Contradictory genetic studies suggested prominent or no importance of ABP1 in many developmental processes. However, how crucial the role of auxin binding to ABP1 is for its functions has not been addressed. Here, we show that the auxin-binding pocket of ABP1 is essential for its gain-of-function cellular and developmental roles. In total, 16 different abp1 mutants were prepared that possessed substitutions in the metal core or in the hydrophobic amino acids of the auxin-binding pocket as well as neutral mutations. Their analysis revealed that an intact auxin-binding pocket is a prerequisite for ABP1 to activate downstream components of the ABP1 signalling pathway, such as Rho of Plants (ROPs) and to mediate the clathrin association with membranes for endocytosis regulation. In planta analyses demonstrated the importance of the auxin binding pocket for all known ABP1-mediated postembryonic developmental processes, including morphology of leaf epidermal cells, root growth and root meristem activity, and vascular tissue differentiation. Taken together, these findings suggest that auxin binding to ABP1 is central to its function, supporting the role of ABP1 as auxin receptor.

Light-induced STOMAGEN-mediated stomatal development in Arabidopsis leaves.

The initiation of stomata, microscopic valves in the epidermis of higher plants that control of gas exchange, requires a co-ordinated sequence of asymmetric and symmetric divisions, which is under tight environmental and developmental control. Arabidopsis leaves grown under elevated photosynthetic photon flux density have a higher density of stomata. STOMAGEN encodes an epidermal patterning factor produced in the mesophyll, and our observations indicated that elevated photosynthetic irradiation stimulates STOMAGEN expression. Our analysis of gain and loss of function of STOMAGEN further detailed its function as a positive regulator of stomatal formation on both sides of the leaf, not only in terms of stomatal density across the leaf surface but also in terms of their stomatal index. STOMAGEN function was rate limiting for the light response of the stomatal lineage in the adaxial epidermis. Mutants in pathways that regulate stomatal spacing in the epidermis and have elevated stomatal density, such as stomatal density and distribution (sdd1) and too many mouth alleles, displayed elevated STOMAGEN expression, suggesting that STOMAGEN is either under the direct control of these pathways or is indirectly affected by stomatal patterning, suggestive of a feedback mechanism. These observations support a model in which changes in levels of light irradiation are perceived in the mesophyll and control the production of stomata in the epidermis by mesophyll-produced STOMAGEN, and whereby, conversely, stomatal patterning, either directly or indirectly, influences STOMAGEN levels.

Subcellular homeostasis of phytohormone auxin is mediated by the ER-localized PIN5 transporter.

The plant signalling molecule auxin provides positional information in a variety of developmental processes by means of its differential distribution (gradients) within plant tissues. Thus, cellular auxin levels often determine the developmental output of auxin signalling. Conceptually, transmembrane transport and metabolic processes regulate the steady-state levels of auxin in any given cell. In particular, PIN auxin-efflux-carrier-mediated, directional transport between cells is crucial for generating auxin gradients. Here we show that Arabidopsis thaliana PIN5, an atypical member of the PIN gene family, encodes a functional auxin transporter that is required for auxin-mediated development. PIN5 does not have a direct role in cell-to-cell transport but regulates intracellular auxin homeostasis and metabolism. PIN5 localizes, unlike other characterized plasma membrane PIN proteins, to endoplasmic reticulum (ER), presumably mediating auxin flow from the cytosol to the lumen of the ER. The ER localization of other PIN5-like transporters (including the moss PIN) indicates that the diversification of PIN protein functions in mediating auxin homeostasis at the ER, and cell-to-cell auxin transport at the plasma membrane, represent an ancient event during the evolution of land plants.

Lysine63-linked ubiquitylation of PIN2 auxin carrier protein governs hormonally controlled adaptation of Arabidopsis root growth.

Cross-talk between plant cells and their surroundings requires tight regulation of information exchange at the plasma membrane (PM), which involves dynamic adjustments of PM protein localization and turnover to modulate signal perception and solute transport at the interface between cells and their surroundings. In animals and fungi, turnover of PM proteins is controlled by reversible ubiquitylation, which signals endocytosis and delivery to the cell's lytic compartment, and there is emerging evidence for related mechanisms in plants. Here, we describe the fate of Arabidopsis PIN2 protein, required for directional cellular efflux of the phytohormone auxin, and identify cis- and trans-acting mediators of PIN2 ubiquitylation. We demonstrate that ubiquitin acts as a principal signal for PM protein endocytosis in plants and reveal dynamic adjustments in PIN2 ubiquitylation coinciding with variations in vacuolar targeting and proteolytic turnover. We show that control of PIN2 proteolytic turnover via its ubiquitylation status is of significant importance for auxin distribution in root meristems and for environmentally controlled adaptations of root growth. Moreover, we provide experimental evidence indicating that PIN2 vacuolar sorting depends on modification specifically by lysine(63)-linked ubiquitin chains. Collectively, our results establish lysine(63)-linked PM cargo ubiquitylation as a regulator of polar auxin transport and adaptive growth responses in higher plants.

Kaempferol 3-O-rhamnoside-7-O-rhamnoside is an endogenous flavonol inhibitor of polar auxin transport in Arabidopsis shoots.

Polar auxin transport (PAT) plays key roles in the regulation of plant growth and development. Flavonoids have been implicated in the inhibition of PAT. However, the active flavonoid derivative(s) involved in this process in vivo has not yet been identified. Here, we provide evidence that a specific flavonol bis-glycoside is correlated with shorter plant stature and reduced PAT. Specific flavonoid-biosynthetic or flavonoid-glycosylating steps were genetically blocked in Arabidopsis thaliana. The differential flavonol patterns established were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and related to altered plant stature. PAT was monitored in stem segments using a radioactive [(3)H]-indole-3-acetic acid tracer. The flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase mutant ugt78d2 exhibited a dwarf stature in addition to its altered flavonol glycoside pattern. This was accompanied by reduced PAT in ugt78d2 shoots. The ugt78d2-dependent growth defects were flavonoid dependent, as they were rescued by genetic blocking of flavonoid biosynthesis. Phenotypic and metabolic analyses of a series of mutants defective at various steps of flavonoid formation narrowed down the potentially active moiety to kaempferol 3-O-rhamnoside-7-O-rhamnoside. Moreover, the level of this compound was negatively correlated with basipetal auxin transport. These results indicate that kaempferol 3-O-rhamnoside-7-O-rhamnoside acts as an endogenous PAT inhibitor in Arabidopsis shoots.

The Arabidopsis concentration-dependent influx/efflux transporter ABCB4 regulates cellular auxin levels in the root epidermis.

Arabidopsis ATP-binding cassette B4 (ABCB4) is a root-localised auxin efflux transporter with reported auxin uptake activity in low auxin concentrations. Results reported here demonstrate that ABCB4 is a substrate-activated regulator of cellular auxin levels. The contribution of ABCB4 to shootward auxin movement at the root apex increases with auxin concentration, but in root hair elongation assays ABCB4-mediated uptake is evident at low concentrations as well. Uptake kinetics of ABCB4 heterologously expressed in Schizosaccharomyces pombe differed from the saturation kinetics of AUX1 as uptake converted to efflux at threshold indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) concentrations. The concentration dependence of ABCB4 appears to be a direct effect on transporter activity, as ABCB4 expression and ABCB4 plasma membrane (PM) localisation at the root apex are relatively insensitive to changes in auxin concentration. However, PM localization of ABCB4 decreases with 1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) treatment. Unlike other plant ABCBs studied to date, and consistent with decreased detergent solubility, ABCB4(pro) :ABCB4-GFP is partially internalised in all cell types by 0.05% DMSO, but not 0.1% ethanol. In trichoblasts, ABCB4(pro) :ABCB4-GFP PM signals are reduced by >200 nm IAA and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D). In heterologous systems and in planta, ABCB4 transports benzoic acid with weak affinity, but not the oxidative catabolism products 2-oxindole-3-acetic-acid and 2-oxindole-3-acetyl-ß-D-glucose. ABCB4 mediates uptake, but not efflux, of the synthetic auxin 2,4-D in cells lacking AUX1 activity. Results presented here suggest that 2,4-D is a non-competitive inhibitor of IAA transport by ABCB4 and indicate that ABCB4 is a target of 2,4-D herbicidal activity.

The auxin influx carriers AUX1 and LAX3 are involved in auxin-ethylene interactions during apical hook development in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings.

Dark-grown dicotyledonous seedlings form a hook-like structure at the top of the hypocotyl, which is controlled by the hormones auxin and ethylene. Hook formation is dependent on an auxin signal gradient, whereas hook exaggeration is part of the triple response provoked by ethylene in dark-grown Arabidopsis seedlings. Several other hormones and light are also known to be involved in hook development, but the molecular mechanisms that lead to the initial installation of an auxin gradient are still poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to unravel the cross-talk between auxin and ethylene in the apical hook. Auxin measurements, the expression pattern of the auxin reporter DR5::GUS and the localization of auxin biosynthesis enzymes and influx carriers collectively indicate the necessity for auxin biosynthesis and efficient auxin translocation from the cotyledons and meristem into the hypocotyl in order to support proper hook development. Auxin accumulation in the meristem and cotyledons and in the hypocotyl is increased approximately 2-fold upon treatment with ethylene. In addition, a strong ethylene signal leads to enhanced auxin biosynthesis at the inner side of the hook. Finally, mutant analysis demonstrates that the auxin influx carrier LAX3 is indispensable for proper hook formation, whereas the auxin influx carrier AUX1 is involved in the hook exaggeration phenotype induced by ethylene.

Single-cell-based system to monitor carrier driven cellular auxin homeostasis.

BACKGROUND: Abundance and distribution of the plant hormone auxin play important roles in plant development. Besides other metabolic processes, various auxin carriers control the cellular level of active auxin and, hence, are major regulators of cellular auxin homeostasis. Despite the developmental importance of auxin transporters, a simple medium-to-high throughput approach to assess carrier activities is still missing. Here we show that carrier driven depletion of cellular auxin correlates with reduced nuclear auxin signaling in tobacco Bright Yellow-2 (BY-2) cell cultures. RESULTS: We developed an easy to use transient single-cell-based system to detect carrier activity. We use the relative changes in signaling output of the auxin responsive promoter element DR5 to indirectly visualize auxin carrier activity. The feasibility of the transient approach was demonstrated by pharmacological and genetic interference with auxin signaling and transport. As a proof of concept, we provide visual evidence that the prominent auxin transport proteins PIN-FORMED (PIN)2 and PIN5 regulate cellular auxin homeostasis at the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum (ER), respectively. Our data suggest that PIN2 and PIN5 have different sensitivities to the auxin transport inhibitor 1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA). Also the putative PIN-LIKES (PILS) auxin carrier activity at the ER is insensitive to NPA in our system, indicating that NPA blocks intercellular, but not intracellular auxin transport. CONCLUSIONS: This single-cell-based system is a useful tool by which the activity of putative auxin carriers, such as PINs, PILS and WALLS ARE THIN1 (WAT1), can be indirectly visualized in a medium-to-high throughput manner. Moreover, our single cell system might be useful to investigate also other hormonal signaling pathways, such as cytokinin.

Defining the selectivity of processes along the auxin response chain: a study using auxin analogues.

The mode of action of auxin is based on its non-uniform distribution within tissues and organs. Despite the wide use of several auxin analogues in research and agriculture, little is known about the specificity of different auxin-related transport and signalling processes towards these compounds. Using seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana and suspension-cultured cells of Nicotiana tabacum (BY-2), the physiological activity of several auxin analogues was investigated, together with their capacity to induce auxin-dependent gene expression, to inhibit endocytosis and to be transported across the plasma membrane. This study shows that the specificity criteria for different auxin-related processes vary widely. Notably, the special behaviour of some synthetic auxin analogues suggests that they might be useful tools in investigations of the molecular mechanism of auxin action. Thus, due to their differential stimulatory effects on DR5 expression, indole-3-propionic (IPA) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic (2,4,5-T) acids can serve in studies of TRANSPORT INHIBITOR RESPONSE 1/AUXIN SIGNALLING F-BOX (TIR1/AFB)-mediated auxin signalling, and 5-fluoroindole-3-acetic acid (5-F-IAA) can help to discriminate between transcriptional and non-transcriptional pathways of auxin signalling. The results demonstrate that the major determinants for the auxin-like physiological potential of a particular compound are very complex and involve its chemical and metabolic stability, its ability to distribute in tissues in a polar manner and its activity towards auxin signalling machinery.

Auxin transport at cellular level: new insights supported by mathematical modelling.

The molecular basis of cellular auxin transport is still not fully understood. Although a number of carriers have been identified and proved to be involved in auxin transport, their regulation and possible activity of as yet unknown transporters remain unclear. Nevertheless, using single-cell-based systems it is possible to track the course of auxin accumulation inside cells and to specify and quantify some auxin transport parameters. The synthetic auxins 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and naphthalene-1-acetic acid (NAA) are generally considered to be suitable tools for auxin transport studies because they are transported specifically via either auxin influx or efflux carriers, respectively. Our results indicate that NAA can be metabolized rapidly in tobacco BY-2 cells. The predominant metabolite has been identified as NAA glucosyl ester and it is shown that all NAA metabolites were retained inside the cells. This implies that the transport efficiency of auxin efflux transporters is higher than previously assumed. By contrast, the metabolism of 2,4-D remained fairly weak. Moreover, using data on the accumulation of 2,4-D measured in the presence of auxin transport inhibitors, it is shown that 2,4-D is also transported by efflux carriers. These results suggest that 2,4-D is a promising tool for determining both auxin influx and efflux activities. Based on the accumulation data, a mathematical model of 2,4-D transport at a single-cell level is proposed. Optimization of the model provides estimates of crucial transport parameters and, together with its validation by successfully predicting the course of 2,4-D accumulation, it confirms the consistency of the present concept of cellular auxin transport.

Cytokinin regulates root meristem activity via modulation of the polar auxin transport.

Plant development is governed by signaling molecules called phytohormones. Typically, in certain developmental processes more than 1 hormone is implicated and, thus, coordination of their overlapping activities is crucial for correct plant development. However, molecular mechanisms underlying the hormonal crosstalk are only poorly understood. Multiple hormones including cytokinin and auxin have been implicated in the regulation of root development. Here we dissect the roles of cytokinin in modulating growth of the primary root. We show that cytokinin effect on root elongation occurs through ethylene signaling whereas cytokinin effect on the root meristem size involves ethylene-independent modulation of transport-dependent asymmetric auxin distribution. Exogenous or endogenous modification of cytokinin levels and cytokinin signaling lead to specific changes in transcription of several auxin efflux carrier genes from the PIN family having a direct impact on auxin efflux from cultured cells and on auxin distribution in the root apex. We propose a novel model for cytokinin action in regulating root growth: Cytokinin influences cell-to-cell auxin transport by modification of expression of several auxin transport components and thus modulates auxin distribution important for regulation of activity and size of the root meristem.

Cytokinins modulate auxin-induced organogenesis in plants via regulation of the auxin efflux.

Postembryonic de novo organogenesis represents an important competence evolved in plants that allows their physiological and developmental adaptation to changing environmental conditions. The phytohormones auxin and cytokinin (CK) are important regulators of the developmental fate of pluripotent plant cells. However, the molecular nature of their interaction(s) in control of plant organogenesis is largely unknown. Here, we show that CK modulates auxin-induced organogenesis (AIO) via regulation of the efflux-dependent intercellular auxin distribution. We used the hypocotyl explants-based in vitro system to study the mechanism underlying de novo organogenesis. We show that auxin, but not CK, is capable of triggering organogenesis in hypocotyl explants. The AIO is accompanied by endogenous CK production and tissue-specific activation of CK signaling. CK affects differential auxin distribution, and the CK-mediated modulation of organogenesis is simulated by inhibition of polar auxin transport. CK reduces auxin efflux from cultured tobacco cells and regulates expression of auxin efflux carriers from the PIN family in hypocotyl explants. Moreover, endogenous CK levels influence PIN transcription and are necessary to maintain intercellular auxin distribution in planta. Based on these findings, we propose a model in which auxin acts as a trigger of the organogenic processes, whose output is modulated by the endogenously produced CKs. We propose that an important mechanism of this CK action is its effect on auxin distribution via regulation of expression of auxin efflux carriers.