Improving interface quality for 1-cm2 all-perovskite tandem solar cells.

All-perovskite tandem solar cells provide high power conversion efficiency at a low cost1-4. Rapid efficiency improvement in small-area (<0.1 cm2) tandem solar cells has been primarily driven by advances in low-bandgap (approximately 1.25 eV) perovskite bottom subcells5-7. However, unsolved issues remain for wide-bandgap (> 1.75 eV) perovskite top subcells8, which at present have large voltage and fill factor losses, particularly for large-area (>1 cm2) tandem solar cells. Here we develop a self-assembled monolayer of (4-(7H-dibenzo[c,g]carbazol-7-yl)butyl)phosphonic acid as a hole-selective layer for wide-bandgap perovskite solar cells, which facilitates subsequent growth of high-quality wide-bandgap perovskite over a large area with suppressed interfacial non-radiative recombination, enabling efficient hole extraction. By integrating (4-(7H-dibenzo[c,g]carbazol-7-yl)butyl)phosphonic acid in devices, we demonstrate a high open-circuit voltage (VOC) of 1.31 V in a 1.77-eV perovskite solar cell, corresponding to a very low VOC deficit of 0.46 V (with respect to the bandgap). With these wide-bandgap perovskite subcells, we report 27.0% (26.4% certified stabilized) monolithic all-perovskite tandem solar cells with an aperture area of 1.044 cm2. The certified tandem cell shows an outstanding combination of a high VOC of 2.12 V and a fill factor of 82.6%. Our demonstration of the large-area tandem solar cells with high certified efficiency is a key step towards scaling up all-perovskite tandem photovoltaic technology.

DL-Serine Hydrazide Hydrochloride Multiple-site Synergy Induced Effective and Stable Formamidine-Rich Perovskite Solar Cells.

The efficiency and stability of solar cells are two key indicators that determine for the commercial feasibility of photovoltaic devices. Formamidine-cesium perovskite has been extensively investigated since its excellent thermal stability and has great potential in achieving high power conversion efficiency. However, during the aging process, especially under light conditions, formamidine-rich perovskites are prone to produce iodine, and the escape of iodine is one of the important factors leading to device degradation. Here, DL-Serine Hydrazide Hydrochloride containing the reducing group is introduced into the precursor solution of formamidine-cesium perovskite, which achieves multiple-site passivation. Hydrazine reacts with iodine to reduce it to iodine ions, inhibiting the escape of iodine. In addition, carbonyl groups and uncoordinated lead ions form coordination bonds to reduce defects. In the end, the perovskite solar cell with DL-Serine Hydrazide Hydrochloride added achieves a champion efficiency of 22.22%, and maintains 85.88% of the initial efficiency after continuous exposure under 1 sun for 7000 s at a relative humidity of ≈40%. Additionally, DL-Serine Hydrazide Hydrochloride added device shows good stability in air environments with relative humidity of 50%-60%. DL-Serine Hydrazide Hydrochloride improves the stability of formamidine-rich perovskite solar cells and provides a low-cost strategy for commercial development.

Space-Confined Growth for Thickness-Controlled Cs3Bi2I9 Perovskite Single Crystal Wafers for X-Ray Detectors.

The Cs3Bi2I9 single crystal, as an all-inorganic non-lead perovskite, offers advantages such as stability and environmental friendliness. Its superior photoelectric properties, attributed to the absence of grain boundary influence, make it an outstanding X-ray detection material compared to polycrystals. In addition to material properties, X-ray detector performance is affected by the thickness of the absorption layer. Addressing this, a space-confined method is proposed. The temperature field is determined through finite element simulation, effectively guiding the design of the space-confined method. Through this innovative method, a series of thickness-controlled perovskite single crystal wafers (PSCWs) are successfully prepared. Corresponding X-ray detectors are then prepared, and the impact of single crystal thickness on device performance is investigated. With an increase in single crystal thickness, a rise followed by a decline in device sensitivity is observed, reaching an optimal value at 0.7 mm thickness at 40V mm-1 with a device performance of 11313.6µC Gy-1 cm-2. This space-confined method enables the direct growth of high-quality perovskite single crystals with specified thickness, eliminating the need for slicing or etching.

CircFOXK2 Promotes the Progression of Osteoarthritis by Regulating the miR-4640-5p/NOTCH2 Axis.

OBJECTIVE: Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common age-related chronic and disabling joint disease, frequently causing pain and disability in the adult population. Given that there are no proven disease-modifying drugs for OA, it is urgent to gain a deeper understanding of OA pathogenesis. This study intended to uncover the circFOXK2 regulation in OA. METHODS: Firstly, in vitro OA cell model was constructed by treating murine chondrocytes with interleukin (IL)-1ß. Then, a series of functional assays were conducted to evaluate the effect of circFOXK2 on OA progression in murine chondrocytes. Bioinformatics analysis and mechanism investigations were performed to investigate the competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network of circFOXK2 in OA. RESULTS: CircFOXK2 is overexpressed in IL-1ß-treated chondrocyte. We confirmed the cyclic structure and cytoplasmic distribution of circFOXK2. Functionally, circFOXK2 promotes chondrocyte apoptosis and extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation but inhibiting chondrocyte proliferation. Mechanically, circFOXK2 competitively binds to microRNA-4640-5p (miR-4640-5p) to enhance NOTCH2 expression in OA, affecting OA progression. Besides, circFOXK2 could motivate the Notch pathway to accelerate OA progression. CONCLUSION: CircFOXK2/miR-4640-5p/NOTCH2 axis stimulates the Notch pathway to promote the transcription of inflammatory cytokines (IL33, IL17F and IL6), consequently facilitating OA progression in murine chondrocytes.

Surface plasmon enhanced THz emission with nanoporous gold supported CdTe.

Terahertz emission by ultrafast excitation of semiconductor/metal interfaces was found strongly enhanced by plasmon resonance. Here, a three-dimensional nanoporous gold (NPG) was used to form semiconductor/metal compound with cadmium telluride (CdTe). We investigated the specific impact of surface plasmon from randomly nanoporous structure in the ultrafast optoelectronic response for THz generation, and observed a THz amplitude enhancement around an order of magnitude from CdTe on NPG compared to that from CdTe on silicon. Moreover, the plasmon enhancement for THz emission from NPG is stronger than that from gold film, indicating that randomly nanoporous structure is also effective for plasmonic enhancement in THz band.

Interface Engineering of Perovskite Solar Cells with Air Plasma Treatment for Improved Performance.

For high-efficiency perovskite solar cells (PSCs), interface engineering becomes critical for carrier collection from the active perovskite material to the transport layer. To enhance the power conversion efficiency (PCE), herein we demonstrate a novel method named surface plasma treatment on a mesoporous TiO2 electron-transport layer (ETL) to improve electron extraction and transport properties at the perovskite/TiO2 interface. According to the XPS results, the plasma treatment induced a partial reduction of Ti4+ to Ti3+ within the TiO2 lattice and increased the concentration of oxygen vacancies on the TiO2 surface. Ultraviolet photoelectron spectra (UPS) show that the Fermi level of TiO2 upshifts about 0.2 eV which may effectively promote carrier separation and transfer at the perovskite/TiO2 interface. In addition, these created donor levels of Ti3+ and oxygen vacancies donate extra electrons, increasing the conductivities of TiO2 films and which could further promote transport. The time-resolved photoluminescence spectra (TRPL) confirm that the decay time decreases dramatically from 656 ns to 235 ns after 90 s plasma treatment, which indicates a more efficient electron-transfer process. Based on all the above-mentioned results, a remarkable enhancement in cell efficiency was obtained, such that the average efficiency was improved from 11.5 % to 14.3 % under AM 1.5G irradiation (100 mW cm-2 ).

[The impact of ZnS/CdS composite window layer on the quantun efficiency of CdTe solar cell in short wavelength].

ZnS/CdS composite window layer was prepared by magnetron sputtering method and then applied to CdTe solar cell. The morphology and structure of films were measured. The data of I-V in light and the quantum efficiency of CdTe solar cells with different window layers were also measured. The effect of ZnS films prepared in different conditions on the performance of CdTe solar cells was researched. The effects of both CdS thickness and ZnS/CdS composite layer on the transmission in short wavelength were studied. Particularly, the quantum efficiency of CdTe solar cells with ZnS/CdS window layer was measured. The results show as follows. With the thickness of CdS window layer reducing from 100 to 50 nm, the transmission increase 18.3% averagely in short wavelength and the quantum efficiency of CdTe solar cells increase 27.6% averagely. The grain size of ZnS prepared in 250 degrees C is smaller than prepared at room temperature. The performance of CdTe solar cells with ZnS/CdS window layer is much better if ZnS deposited at 250 degrees C. This indicates grain size has some effect on the electron transportation. When the CdS holds the same thickness, the transmission of ZnS/CdS window layer was improved about 2% in short wavelength compared with CdS window layer. The quantum efficiency of CdTe solar cells with ZnS/CdS window layer was also improved about 2% in short wavelength compared with that based on CdS window layer. These indicate ZnS/CdS composite window layer can increase the photon transmission in short wavelength so that more photons can be absorbed by the absorbent layer of CdTe solar cells.

Spectral analysis of the effects of 1.7 MeV electron irradiation on the current transfer characteristic of cadmium telluride solar cells.

The effects of device performance of 1.7 MeV electron irradiation on cadmium telluride polycrystalline thin film solar cells with the structure of anti-radiation glass/ITO/ZnO/CdS/CdTe/ZnTe/ZnTe : Cu/Ni have been studied. Light and dark I-V characteristics, dark C-V characteristics, quantum efficiency (QE), admittance spectrum (AS) and other testing methods were used to analyze cells performance such as the open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit current (Isc), fill factor (FF) and conversion efficiency (eta). It was explored to find out the effects of irradiation on the current transfer characteristic of solar cells combined with the dark current density (Jo), diode ideal factor (A), quantum efficiency, carrier concentration and the depletion layer width. The decline in short-circuit current was very large and the efficiency of solar cells decreased obviously after irradiation. Reverse saturation current density increased, which indicates that p-n junction characteristics of solar cells were damaged, and diode ideal factor was almost the same, so current transport mechanism of solar cells has not changed. Quantum efficiency curves proved that the damage of solar cells' p-n junction influenced the collection of photo-generated carriers. Irradiation made carrier concentration reduce to 40.6%. The analyses have shown that. A new defect was induced by electron irradiation, whose position is close to 0.58 eV above the valence band in the forbidden band, and capture cross section is 1.78 x 10(-16) cm2. These results indicate that irradiation influences the generation of photo-generated carriers, increases the risk of the carrier recombination and the reverse dark current, and eventually makes the short-circuit current of solar cells decay.

Silicon nanocrystals doping and surface modification.

Using the first-principles method based on density functional theory, at the generalized gradient approximation (GGA), the state density, the change of binding energy and the energy gap of the silicon nanocrystals (Si75H76) with the circumstances of boron (B)-doped , phosphorus (P)-doped and the surface modification with ethyl (CH2CH3), isopropyl (-CH(CH3)2) have been calculated. The results showed that the B or P-doped have little impact on the energy gap value (3.12 eV) of silicon nanocrystals (SiNcs), except that some energy levels will be introduced in the forbidden band. The energy level caused by three-coordinated B-doped SiNcs is E(c)-0.8 eV, while it is E(v) + 0.2 eV for the three-coordinated P-doped. However, the energy level position is E(v) +0.4 eV for the four-coordinated B-doped SiNcs, and E(c) -1.1 eV for the four-coordinated P-doped. Total energy of the system with the four-coordinated doped is lower than that with the three-coordinated doped in the other same conditions. The total energy of SiNcs system lessen when the surface is modified with appropriate ethyl or isopropyl. The total energy decreases with the surface coverage of organo-functional group increasing. But, the calculation can't converge because of too high resistance when the SiNcs surface are grafted with too many organic groups.

[Preparation and properties of P-type Cd1-xZn(x)Te thin films].

Cd1-xZnxTe:Cu Thin films were prepared by co-evaporation method. X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF), scanning electron microscope(SEM), UV-Vis transmission spectra, thermal probe, four-probe method, step profiler and X-ray diffractometer (XRD) were used to investigate the composition, structure, morphology, optical and electrical properties of Cd1-x ZnxTe:Cu thin films with different doping concentration. The results show that the resistivity of 10% copper doped Cd1-x ZnxTe films increased several magnitude and the conductive type changed from p-type to n-type after annealing. The 20% cu-doped Cdl, Zn,Te films had not obvious change in conductive type and electrical resistivity after annealing and they exhibit good surface morphology. The transmissivity of 30% cu-doped Cd1-x, ZnxTe films decreased seriously below 10% after annealing, which indicate that they are not suitable to be the top cell materials in tandem structure. The 20% and 30% cu-doped Cd1-x Zn, Te films were both p-type conductivity.

Numerical Simulation on Preparing Uniform and Stable Perovskite Wet Film in Slot-Die Coating Process.

Slot-die coating is regarded as a reliable and potential technology for preparing large-area perovskite solar cells with high efficiency and low cost. Therein, the formation of continuous and uniform wet film is of significance to obtain a high-quality solid perovskite film. In this work, the rheological properties of the perovskite precursor fluid are analyzed. Then, the ANSYS Fluent is introduced to establish an integrated model of internal and external flow fields during the coating process. The model is applicable to all perovskite precursor solutions with near-Newtonian fluids. Based on the theoretical simulation of finite element analysis, the preparation of 0.8 M-FAxCs1-xPbI3, one of the typical large-area perovskite precursor solutions, is explored. Accordingly, this work indicates that the coupling process parameters like the fluid supply velocity (Vin) and coating velocity (V) determine the uniformity that the solution flows out of the slit and is coated onto the substrates, and the coating windows for a uniform and stable perovskite wet film is obtained. For the upper boundary range of the coating windows, the maximum value of V and Vin follows V = 0.003 + 1.46Vin (Vin ≤ 0.1 m/s), while for its lower boundary range, the minimum value of V and Vin is V = 0.002 + 0.67Vin (Vin ≤ 0.1 m/s). When Vin is higher than 0.1 m/s, the film will break due to the excessive V. Finally, the real experiment verifies the accuracy of the numerical simulation. Hopefully, this work is of reference value for the development of the slot-die coating forming process on the perovskite precursor solution approximating Newtonian fluid.

Composition Engineering Growth of Cs3Bi2I9 Single Crystals with Low Defect Density for X-ray Detectors.

Cs3Bi2I9 (CBI) single crystal (SC) is a promising material for a higher-performance direct X-ray detector. However, the composition of CBI SC prepared by the solution method usually deviates from the ideal stoichiometric ratio, which limits the detector performance. In this paper, based on the finite element analysis method, the growth model of the top-seed solution method has been established, and then the influence of precursor ratio, temperature field, and other parameters on the composition of CBI SC has been simulated. The simulation results were used to guide the growth of the CBI SCs. Finally, a high-quality CBI SC with a stoichiometric ratio of Cs/Bi/I = 2.87:2:8.95 has been successfully grown, and the defect density is as low as 1.03 × 109 cm-3, the carrier lifetime is as high as 16.7 ns, and the resistivity is as high as 1.44 × 1012 Ω·cm. The X-ray detector based on this SC has a sensitivity of 29386.2 µC·Gyair-1 cm-2 at an electric field of 40 V·mm-1, and a low detection limit of 0.36 nGyair·s-1, creating a record for the all-inorganic perovskite materials.

Enhanced Spectral Response of ZnO-Nanorod-Array-Based Ultraviolet Photodetectors by Alloying Non-Isovalent Cu-O with CuAlO2 P-Type Layer.

CuAlO2 was synthesized by a hydrothermal method, in which the Cu-O dimers were incorporated by simply altering the ratio of the reactants and the temperature. The incorporation process increases the grain size in CuAlO2, and modulates the work function and binding energies for CuAlO2 due to the partial substitution of Cu+ 3d10 with Cu2+ 3d9 orbitals in the valence band maximum by alloying non-isovalent Cu-O with a CuAlO2 host. Based on the ZnO nanorod arrays (NRs) ultraviolet photodetector, CuAlO2/Cu-O fabricated by the low-cost drop-coating method was used as the p-type hole transport layer. The incorporation of the Cu-O clusters into CuAlO2 lattice to enhance the conductivity of CuAlO2 is an effective way for improving ZnO NRs/CuAlO2 device performance. The photodetectors exhibit significant diode behavior, with a rectification ratio approaching 30 at ±1 V, and a dark saturation current density 0.81 mA cm-2. The responsivity of the ZnO-NRs-based UV photodetector increases from 13.2 to 91.3 mA/W at 0 V bias, with an increase in the detectivity from 2.35 × 1010 to 1.71 × 1011 Jones. Furthermore, the ZnO NRs/[CuAlO2/Cu-O] photodetector exhibits a maximum responsivity of 5002 mA/W at 1.5 V bias under 375 nm UV illumination.

Probing the Genuine Carrier Dynamics of Semiconducting Perovskites under Sunlight.

Understanding the nature of photogenerated carriers and their subsequent dynamics in semiconducting perovskites is important for the development of solar cell materials and devices. However, most ultrafast dynamic measurements on perovskite materials were conducted under high carrier densities, which likely obscures the genuine dynamics under low carrier densities in solar illumination conditions. In this study, we presented a detailed experimental study of the carrier density-dependent dynamics in hybrid lead iodide perovskites from femtosecond to microsecond using a highly sensitive transient absorption (TA) spectrometer. From the dynamic curves with low carrier density in the linear response range, we observed two fast trapping processes that occurred in less than 1 ps and tens of picoseconds, attributed to the shallow traps, and two slow decays with lifetimes of hundreds of nanoseconds and longer than 1 µs, related to the trap-assisted recombination and trapping at deep traps. Further TA measurements clearly show that PbCl2 passivation can effectively reduce both shallow and deep trap densities. These results provide insights into the intrinsic photophysics of semiconducting perovskites with direct implications for photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications under sunlight.

First-principles investigation on the electronic structures of CdSe x S1-x and simulation of CdTe solar cell with a CdSe x S1-x window layer by SCAPS.

The short-circuit current density (J SC) of CdTe solar cells both in the short and long wavelength regions can be effectively enhanced by using CdS/CdSe as the composite window layer. CdS/CdSe composite layers would interdiffuse to form the CdSe x S1-x ternary layer during the high temperature deposition process of CdTe films. In this paper, the electronic properties of CdSe x S1-x (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) ternary alloys are investigated by first-principles calculation based on the density functional theory (DFT) and the performance of CdS/CdSe/CdTe devices are modeled by SCAPS to reveal why CdS/CdSe complex layers have good effects. The calculation results show that the position of the valence band of CdSe x S1-x moves towards the vacuum level as the doping concentration of Se increases and the band gap becomes narrow. According to device modeling, the highest conversion efficiency of 20.34% could be achieved through adjusting the conduction band offset (CBO) of theCdSe x S1-x /CdTe interface to about 0.11 eV while the Se concentration x approaches 0.75. Further investigations suggest a 50-120 nm thickness of CdSe x S1-x (x = 0.75) would obtain better device performance. It means that solar cells with a CdSe x S1-x /CdTe structure need a suitable Se content and thickness of CdSe x S1-x . These results can provide theoretical guidance for the design and fabrication of high efficiency CdTe solar cells.

[Study of the physical properties of SnS thin films deposited by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis method].

In the present paper, SnS thin films were deposited by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis method. The influence of the three different precursor concentrations on the properties of SnS thin films was compared. XRD shows that when precursor solution is thiourea (0.5 mol x L(-1)) + tin tetrachloride (0.5 mol x L(-1)) + deionized water, there are SnS and SnO2 mixed phases; when precursor solution is thiourea (0.6 mol x L(-1)) + tin tetrachloride (0.5 mol x L(-1)) + deionized water, SnS phase is the dominant diffraction peak, although a certain amount of SnO2 phase is contained; when precursor solution is thiourea (0.7 mol x L(-1)) + tin tetrachloride (0.5 mol x L(-1)) + deionized water, thin film after being annealed is single SnS thin film with orthorhombic structure. SEM shows that films are uniform and dense. Furthermore, the particles of films are bigger when thiourea concentration is higher. Transmittance spectrum shows that the influence of precursor concentration on transmittance of thin films is less. Dark I-V and C-V tests of the devices show that junction characteristics of the devices were similar when prepared by three different concentrations of precursor solution, and as the thiourea concentration is higher, the carrier concentration is relatively larger.

Ultrahigh sensitive transient absorption spectrometer.

Transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy is considered as a powerful technique that reflects the ultrafast dynamics of photogenerated carriers in photoelectric and photocatalysis materials. However, limited by its sensitivity, the photogenerated carrier density in TA measurements of solar energy materials is usually much higher than that in the real working condition. Here, we present a combination of kHz macro-pulse and MHz micro-pulse technique for an ultrahigh sensitive TA spectrometer, which improves the sensitivity to the 10-7 level of ΔOD. It enables us to study ultrafast carrier dynamics pumped by very low power, which can avoid the influence of many-body interactions and the nonlinear effect associated with high carrier density. This work provides a novel TA method with ultrahigh sensitivity, which will play an important role in investigating the carrier dynamics of semiconductors in the working condition.

Surgical treatment for upper cervical deformity with atlantoaxial joint dislocation using individualized 3D printing occipitocervical fusion instrument: A case report and literature review.

ABSTRACT: To introduce a novel technique of using individualized 3D printing occipitocervical fusion instrument (3D-OCF) for the treatment of upper cervical deformity with atlantoaxial joint dislocation.The surgery for deformity of the craniocervical junction area is a challenge in the field of spine. If the surgical deviation is too large to injure the spinal cord or vertebral artery, it will cause catastrophic damage to the patient. Therefore, it is controversial whether these patients should undergo surgical treatment. We provide a novel surgical approach for the challenging upper cervical surgery through 3D-OCF and a typical patient.We present a 54-year-old female patient, who suffered from dizziness and numbness in her limbs for 8 months. After the patient was admitted, we performed the three-dimensional CT scan, modeled using Mimics software 17.0, and designed customized occipitocervical fusion instrument. Besides, we repeatedly perform simulated surgery based on 3D-printed models before surgery.The operative time was 142 minutes and the intraoperative blood loss was 700 mL. X-ray showed reduction of atlantoaxial dislocation and accurate position of internal fixation. The patient's symptoms were significantly relieved: the sensation of dizziness and numbness of limbs was obviously relieved, and the sense of banding in chest, abdomen, and ankle was disappeared. At the last follow-up, imaging showed that 3D-OCF had bone-integration and Syringomyelia was disappeared. The patient's cervical JOA (Japanese Orthopaedic Association) score increased from 10 points to 17 points.Individualized 3D-OCF can improve the safety and accuracy of upper cervical surgery, reduce the operative time and the number of fluoroscopy. Our study provides a novel surgical approach for the challenging upper cervical surgery.

GABr Post-Treatment for High-Performance MAPbI3 Solar Cells on Rigid Glass and Flexible Substrate.

Perovskite solar cells have exhibited astonishing photoelectric conversion efficiency and have shown a promising future owing to the tunable content and outstanding optoelectrical property of hybrid perovskite. However, the devices with planar architecture still suffer from huge Voc loss and severe hysteresis effect. In this research, Guanidine hydrobromide (GABr) post-treatment is carried out to enhance the performance of MAPbI3 n-i-p planar perovskite solar cells. The detailed characterization of perovskite suggests that GABr post-treatment results in a smoother absorber layer, an obvious reduction of trap states and optimized energy level alignment. By utilizing GABr post-treatment, the Voc loss is reduced, and the hysteresis effect is alleviated effectively in MAPbI3 solar cells. As a result, solar cells based on glass substrate with efficiency exceeding 20%, Voc of 1.13 V and significantly mitigated hysteresis are fabricated successfully. Significantly, we also demonstrate the effectiveness of GABr post-treatment in flexible device, whose efficiency is enhanced from 15.77% to 17.57% mainly due to the elimination of Voc loss.

Progress in Perovskite Solar Cells towards Commercialization-A Review.

In recent years, perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have experienced rapid development and have presented an excellent commercial prospect as the PSCs are made from raw materials that are readily and cheaply available depending on simple manufacturing techniques. However, the commercial production and utilization of PSCs remain immature, leading to substantial efforts needed to boost the development of scalable fabrication of PSCs, pilot scale tests, and the establishment of industrial production lines. In this way, the PSCs are expected to be successfully popularized from the laboratory to the photovoltaic market. In this review, the history of power conversion efficiency (PCE) for laboratory-scale PSCs is firstly introduced, and then some methods for maintaining high PCE in the upscaling process is displayed. The achievements in the stability and environmental friendliness of PSCs are also summarized because they are also of significance for commercialization. Finally, this review evaluates the commercialization prospects of PSCs from the economic view and provides a short outlook.