LAG-3 Inhibitory Receptor Expression Identifies Immunosuppressive Natural Regulatory Plasma Cells.

B lymphocytes can suppress immunity through interleukin (IL)-10 production in infectious, autoimmune, and malignant diseases. Here, we have identified a natural plasma cell subset that distinctively expresses the inhibitory receptor LAG-3 and mediates this function in vivo. These plasma cells also express the inhibitory receptors CD200, PD-L1, and PD-L2. They develop from various B cell subsets in a B cell receptor (BCR)-dependent manner independently of microbiota in naive mice. After challenge they upregulate IL-10 expression via a Toll-like receptor-driven mechanism within hours and without proliferating. This function is associated with a unique transcriptome and epigenome, including the lowest amount of DNA methylation at the Il10 locus compared to other B cell subsets. Their augmented accumulation in naive mutant mice with increased BCR signaling correlates with the inhibition of memory T cell formation and vaccine efficacy after challenge. These natural regulatory plasma cells may be of broad relevance for disease intervention.

Bronchial epithelial DNA methyltransferase 3b dampens pulmonary immune responses during Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection.

DNA methyltransferase (Dnmt)3b mediates de novo DNA methylation and modulation of Dnmt3b in respiratory epithelial cells has been shown to affect the expression of multiple genes. Respiratory epithelial cells provide a first line of defense against pulmonary pathogens and play a crucial role in the immune response during pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas (P.) aeruginosa, a gram-negative bacterium that expresses flagellin as an important virulence factor. We here sought to determine the role of Dntm3b in respiratory epithelial cells in immune responses elicited by P. aeruginosa. DNMT3B expression was reduced in human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells as well as in primary human and mouse bronchial epithelial cells grown in air liquid interface upon exposure to P. aeruginosa (PAK). Dnmt3b deficient human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells produced more CXCL1, CXCL8 and CCL20 than control cells when stimulated with PAK, flagellin-deficient PAK (PAKflic) or flagellin. Dnmt3b deficiency reduced DNA methylation at exon 1 of CXCL1 and enhanced NF-ĸB p65 binding to the CXCL1 promoter. Mice with bronchial epithelial Dntm3b deficiency showed increased Cxcl1 mRNA expression in bronchial epithelium and CXCL1 protein release in the airways during pneumonia caused by PAK, which was associated with enhanced neutrophil recruitment and accelerated bacterial clearance; bronchial epithelial Dnmt3b deficiency did not modify responses during pneumonia caused by PAKflic or Klebsiella pneumoniae (an un-flagellated gram-negative bacterium). Dnmt3b deficiency in type II alveolar epithelial cells did not affect mouse pulmonary defense against PAK infection. These results suggest that bronchial epithelial Dnmt3b impairs host defense during Pseudomonas induced pneumonia, at least in part, by dampening mucosal responses to flagellin.

Adherence Affects Monocyte Innate Immune Function and Metabolic Reprogramming after Lipopolysaccharide Stimulation In Vitro.

Circulating nonadherent monocytes can migrate to extravascular sites by a process that involves adherence. Alterations in intracellular metabolism shape the immunological phenotype of phagocytes upon activation. To determine the effect of adherence on their metabolic and functional response human monocytes were stimulated with LPS under nonadherent and adherent conditions. Adherent monocytes (relative to nonadherent monocytes) produced less TNF and IL-1ß (proinflammatory) and more IL-10 (anti-inflammatory) upon LPS stimulation and had an increased capacity to phagocytose and produce reactive oxygen species. RNA sequencing analysis confirmed that adherence modified the LPS-induced response of monocytes, reducing expression of proinflammatory genes involved in TLR signaling and increasing induction of genes involved in pathogen elimination. Adherence resulted in an increased glycolytic response as indicated by lactate release, gene set enrichment, and [13C]-glucose flux analysis. To determine the role of glycolysis in LPS-induced immune responses, this pathway was inhibited by glucose deprivation or the glucose analogue 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2DG). Although both interventions equally inhibited glycolysis, only 2DG influenced monocyte functions, inhibiting expression of genes involved in TLR signaling and pathogen elimination, as well as cytokine release. 2DG, but not glucose deprivation, reduced expression of genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation. Inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation affected TNF and IL-10 release in a similar way as 2DG. Collectively, these data suggest that adherence may modify the metabolic and immunological profile of monocytes and that inhibition of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, but not inhibition of glycolysis alone, has a profound effect on immune functions of monocytes exposed to LPS.

Immunostimulatory Effect of Flagellin on MDR-Klebsiella-Infected Human Airway Epithelial Cells.

Pneumonia caused by multi-drug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (MDR-Kpneu) poses a major public health threat, especially to immunocompromised or hospitalized patients. This study aimed to determine the immunostimulatory effect of the Toll-like receptor 5 ligand flagellin on primary human lung epithelial cells during infection with MDR-Kpneu. Human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells, grown on an air-liquid interface, were inoculated with MDR-Kpneu on the apical side and treated during ongoing infection with antibiotics (meropenem) and/or flagellin on the basolateral and apical side, respectively; the antimicrobial and inflammatory effects of flagellin were determined in the presence or absence of meropenem. In the absence of meropenem, flagellin treatment of MDR-Kpneu-infected HBE cells increased the expression of antibacterial defense genes and the secretion of chemokines; moreover, supernatants of flagellin-exposed HBE cells activated blood neutrophils and monocytes. However, in the presence of meropenem, flagellin did not augment these responses compared to meropenem alone. Flagellin did not impact the outgrowth of MDR-Kpneu. Flagellin enhances antimicrobial gene expression and chemokine release by the MDR-Kpneu-infected primary human bronchial epithelium, which is associated with the release of mediators that activate neutrophils and monocytes. Topical flagellin therapy may have potential to boost immune responses in the lung during pneumonia.

Association of Myeloid Liver Kinase B1 Depletion With a Reduction in Alveolar Macrophage Numbers and an Impaired Host Defense During Gram-Negative Pneumonia.

BACKGROUND: Liver kinase B1 (LKB1) has been studied extensively as a tumor suppressor gene (Stk11) in the context of cancer. We hypothesized that myeloid LKB1 plays a role in innate immunity during pneumonia. METHODS: Mice deficient for LKB1 in myeloid cells (LysM-cre × Stk11fl/fl) or neutrophils (Mrp8-cre × Stk11fl/fl) were infected with Klebsiella pneumoniae via the airways. LysM-cre × Stk11fl/fl mice were also intranasally challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). RESULTS: Mice with myeloid LKB1 deficiency, but not those with neutrophil LKB1 deficiency, had increased bacterial loads in lungs 6-40 hours after infection, compared with control mice, pointing to a role for LKB1 in macrophages. Myeloid LKB1 deficiency was associated with reduced cytokine release into the airways on local LPS instillation. The number of classic (SiglecFhighCD11bneg) alveolar macrophages (AMs) was reduced by approximately 50% in the lungs of myeloid LKB1-deficient mice, which was not caused by increased cell death or reduced proliferation. Instead, these mice had AMs with a "nonclassic" (SiglecFlowCD11bpos) phenotype. AMs did not up-regulate glycolysis in response to LPS, irrespective of LKB1 presence. CONCLUSION: Myeloid LKB1 is important for local host defense during Klebsiella pneumonia by maintaining adequate AM numbers in the lung.

Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase Deficiency Ameliorates Antimicrobial Host Defense during Peritonitis Induced by Pathogenic Escherichia coli.

Peritonitis and abdominal sepsis remain major health problems and challenge for clinicians. Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) is a versatile signaling protein involved in the regulation of B cell development and function, as well as innate host defense. In the current study, we aimed to explore the role of Btk in the host response during peritonitis and sepsis in mice induced by a gradually growing pathogenic strain of Escherichia coli bacteria. We found that Btk deficiency ameliorated antibacterial host defense during the late stage of E. coli-induced peritonitis. Btk was not required for cytokine and chemokine release in response to either E. coli or lipopolysaccharide and did not impact organ damage evoked by E. coli. Btk deficiency also did not alter neutrophil influx to the primary site of infection. However, the absence of Btk modestly enhanced phagocytosis of E. coli by neutrophils. These results indicate that Btk-mediated signaling is superfluous for inflammatory responses and remarkably detrimental for antibacterial defense during E. coli-induced peritonitis.

The Azithromycin Pro-Drug CSY5669 Boosts Bacterial Killing While Attenuating Lung Inflammation Associated with Pneumonia Caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Antibiotic resistance is a major problem, with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) being a prototypical example in surgical and community-acquired infections. S. aureus, like many pathogens, is immune evasive and able to multiply within host immune cells. Consequently, compounds that aid host immunity (e.g., by stimulating the host-mediated killing of pathogens) are appealing alternatives or adjuncts to classical antibiotics. Azithromycin is both an antibacterial and an immunomodulatory drug that accumulates in immune cells. We set out to improve the immunomodulatory properties of azithromycin by coupling the immune activators, nitric oxide and acetate, to its core structure. This new compound, designated CSY5669, enhanced the intracellular killing of MRSA by 45% ± 20% in monocyte-derived macrophages and by 55% ± 15% in peripheral blood leukocytes, compared with untreated controls. CSY5669-treated peripheral blood leukocytes produced fewer proinflammatory cytokines, while in both monocyte-derived macrophages and peripheral blood leukocytes, phagocytosis, ROS production, and degranulation were unaffected. In mice with MRSA pneumonia, CSY5669 treatment reduced inflammation, lung pathology and vascular leakage with doses as low as 0.01 µmol/kg p.o. CSY5669 had diminished direct in vitro antibacterial properties compared with azithromycin. Also, CSY5669 was immunomodulatory at concentrations well below 1% of the minimum inhibitory concentration, which would minimize selection for macrolide-resistant bacteria if it were to be used as a host-directed therapy. This study highlights the potential of CSY5669 as a possible adjunctive therapy in pneumonia caused by MRSA, as CSY5669 could enhance bacterial eradication while simultaneously limiting inflammation-associated pathology.

The PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone exerts proinflammatory effects in bronchial epithelial cells during acute Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common respiratory pathogen that causes injurious airway inflammation during acute pneumonia. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ is involved in the regulation of metabolic and inflammatory responses in different cell types and synthetic agonists of PPAR-γ exert anti-inflammatory effects on myeloid cells in vitro and in models of inflammation in vivo. We sought to determine the effect of the PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone on airway inflammation induced by acute P. aeruginosa pneumonia, focusing on bronchial epithelial cells. Mice pretreated with pioglitazone or vehicle (24 and 1 h) were infected with P. aeruginosa via the airways. Pioglitazone treatment was associated with increased expression of chemokine (Cxcl1, Cxcl2, and Ccl20) and cytokine genes (Tnfa, Il6, and Cfs3) in bronchial brushes obtained 6 h after infection. This pro-inflammatory effect was accompanied by increased expression of Hk2 and Pfkfb3 genes encoding rate-limiting enzymes of glycolysis; concurrently, the expression of Sdha, important for maintaining metabolite flux in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, was reduced in bronchial epithelial cells of pioglitazone treated-mice. Pioglitazone inhibited bronchoalveolar inflammatory responses measured in lavage fluid. These results suggest that pioglitazone exerts a selective proinflammatory effect on bronchial epithelial cells during acute P. aeruginosa pneumonia, possibly by enhancing intracellular glycolysis.

Myeloid cell tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 2 does not affect the host response during gram-negative bacterial pneumonia and sepsis.

Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 2 (Tet2) is an important enzyme in the demethylation of DNA. Recent evidence has indicated a role for Tet2 in the regulation of macrophage activation by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and mice with a myeloid cell Tet2 deficiency showed enhanced lung inflammation upon local LPS administration. However, mice with a global Tet2 deficiency showed reduced systemic inflammation during abdominal sepsis. Here, we sought to determine the role of myeloid cell Tet2 in the host response during gram-negative bacterial pneumonia. To this end we infected myeloid cell specific Tet2 deficient and control mice with two common gram-negative respiratory pathogens via the airways: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PAK, causing acute infection that remains confined in the lungs) or Klebsiella pneumoniae (causing a gradually evolving pneumonia with subsequent dissemination and sepsis) and compared bacterial loads and host response parameters between mouse strains. Bone marrow derived macrophages from myeloid Tet2 deficient mice released more interleukin-6 than control macrophages upon stimulation with PAK or K. pneumoniae. However, bacterial loads did not differ between mouse strains upon infection with viable PAK or K. pneumoniae, and neither did cytokine levels or neutrophil recruitment. In addition, in the K. pneumoniae pneumosepsis model myeloid Tet2 deficiency did not affect systemic inflammation or organ injury. Together these data strongly argue against a role for myeloid cell Tet2 in the host response during gram-negative bacterial pneumonia and pneumosepsis.

Myeloid liver kinase B1 contributes to lung inflammation induced by lipoteichoic acid but not by viable Streptococcus pneumoniae.

BACKGROUND: Liver kinase B1 (Lkb1, gene name Stk11) functions as a tumor suppressor in cancer. Myeloid cell Lkb1 potentiates lung inflammation induced by the Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component lipopolysaccharide and in host defense during Gram-negative pneumonia. Here, we sought to investigate the role of myeloid Lkb1 in lung inflammation elicited by the Gram-positive bacterial cell wall component lipoteichoic acid (LTA) and during pneumonia caused by the Gram-positive respiratory pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spneu). METHODS: Alveolar and bone marrow derived macrophages (AMs, BMDMs) harvested from myeloid-specific Lkb1 deficient (Stk11-ΔM) and littermate control mice were stimulated with LTA or Spneu in vitro. Stk11-ΔM and control mice were challenged via the airways with LTA or infected with Spneu in vivo. RESULTS: Lkb1 deficient AMs and BMDMs produced less tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α upon activation by LTA or Spneu. During LTA-induced lung inflammation, Stk11-ΔM mice had reduced numbers of AMs in the lungs, as well as diminished cytokine release and neutrophil recruitment into the airways. During pneumonia induced by either encapsulated or non-encapsulated Spneu, Stk11-ΔM and control mice had comparable bacterial loads and inflammatory responses in the lung, with the exception of lower TNFα levels in Stk11-ΔM mice after infection with the non-encapsulated strain. CONCLUSION: Myeloid Lkb1 contributes to LTA-induced lung inflammation, but is not important for host defense during pneumococcal pneumonia.

Interleukin-33 improves local immunity during Gram-negative pneumonia by a combined effect on neutrophils and inflammatory monocytes.

Pneumonia represents a major health care burden and Gram-negative bacteria provide an increasing therapeutic challenge at least in part through the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains. IL-33 is a multifunctional cytokine belonging to the IL-1 family that can affect many different cell types. We sought here to determine the effect of recombinant IL-33 on the host response during murine pneumonia caused by the common Gram-negative pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae. IL-33 pretreatment prolonged survival for more than 1 day during lethal airway infection and decreased bacterial loads at the primary site of infection and distant organs. Postponed treatment with IL-33 (3 h) also reduced bacterial growth and dissemination. IL-33-mediated protection was not observed in mice deficient for the IL-33 receptor component IL-1 receptor-like 1. IL-33 induced a brisk type 2 response, characterized by recruitment of type 2 innate lymphoid cells to the lungs and enhanced release of IL-5 and IL-13. However, neither absence of innate lymphoid cells or IL-13, nor blocking of IL-5 impacted on IL-33 effects in mice infected with Klebsiella. Likewise, IL-33 remained effective in reducing bacterial loads in mice lacking B, T, and natural killer T cells. Experiments using antibody-mediated cell depletion indicated that neutrophils and inflammatory monocytes were of importance for antibacterial defense. The capacity of IL-33 to restrict bacterial growth in the lungs was strongly reduced in mice depleted of both neutrophils and inflammatory monocytes, but not in mice selectively depleted of either one of these cell types. These results suggest that IL-33 boosts host defense during bacterial pneumonia by a combined effect on neutrophils and inflammatory monocytes. © 2020 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Intracellular expression of granzymes A, B, K and M in blood lymphocyte subsets of critically ill patients with or without sepsis.

Sepsis is a complex syndrome related to an infection-induced exaggerated inflammatory response, which is associated with a high mortality. Granzymes (Gzm) are proteases mainly found in cytotoxic lymphocytes that not only have a role in target cell death, but also as mediators of infection and inflammation. In this study we sought to analyse the intracellular expression of GzmA, B, M and K by flow cytometry in diverse blood lymphocyte populations from 22 sepsis patients, 12 non-infected intensive care unit (ICU) patients and 32 healthy controls. Additionally, we measured GzmA and B plasma levels. Both groups of patients presented decreased percentage of natural killer (NK) cells expressing GzmA, B and M relative to healthy controls, while sepsis patients showed an increased proportion of CD8+ T cells expressing GzmB compared to controls. Expression of GzmK remained relatively unaltered between groups. Extracellular levels of GzmB were increased in non-infected ICU patients relative to sepsis patients and healthy controls. Our results show differential alterations in intracellular expression of Gzm in sepsis patients and non-infected critically ill patients compared to healthy individuals depending on the lymphocyte population and on the Gzm.

Post-treatment with the PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone inhibits inflammation and bacterial growth during Klebsiella pneumonia.

Agonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ have been suggested as potential adjuvant therapy in bacterial pneumonia because of their capacity to inhibit inflammation and enhance bacterial clearance. Previous studies only assessed the effects of pretreatment with these compounds, thereby bearing less relevance for the clinical scenario. Moreover, PPAR-γ agonists have not been studied in pneumonia caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae, a common human respiratory pathogen of which antibiotic treatment is hampered by increasing antimicrobial resistance. Here we show that administration of the PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone 6 or 8 h after infection of mice with a highly virulent strain of Klebsiella pneumoniae via the airways results in reduced cytokine and myeloperoxidase levels in the lungs at 24 h after infection, as well as reduced bacterial growth in the lungs and decreased dissemination to distant organs at 42 h post-infection. These results suggest that pioglitazone may be an interesting agent in the treatment of Klebsiella pneumonia.

Prekallikrein inhibits innate immune signaling in the lung and impairs host defense during pneumosepsis in mice.

Prekallikrein (PKK, also known as Fletcher factor and encoded by the gene KLKB1 in humans) is a component of the contact system. Activation of the contact system has been implicated in lethality in fulminant sepsis models. Pneumonia is the most frequent cause of sepsis. We sought to determine the role of PKK in host defense during pneumosepsis. To this end, mice were infected with the common human pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae via the airways, causing an initially localized infection of the lungs with subsequent bacterial dissemination and sepsis. Mice were treated with a selective PKK-directed antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) or a scrambled control ASO for 3 weeks prior to infection. Host response readouts were determined at 12 or 36 h post-infection, including genome-wide messenger RNA profiling of lungs, or mice were followed for survival. PKK ASO treatment inhibited constitutive hepatic Klkb1 mRNA expression by >80% and almost completely abolished plasma PKK activity. Klkb1 mRNA could not be detected in lungs. Pneumonia was associated with a progressive decline in PKK expression in mice treated with control ASO. PKK ASO administration was associated with a delayed mortality, reduced bacterial burdens, and diminished distant organ injury. While PKK depletion did not influence lung pathology or neutrophil recruitment, it was associated with an upregulation of multiple innate immune signaling pathways in the lungs already prior to infection. Activation of the contact system could not be detected, either during infection in vivo or at the surface of Klebsiella in vitro. These data suggest that circulating PKK confines pro-inflammatory signaling in the lung by a mechanism that does not involve contact system activation, which in the case of respiratory tract infection may impede early protective innate immunity. © 2019 Authors. Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α in Macrophages, but Not in Neutrophils, Is Important for Host Defense during Klebsiella pneumoniae-Induced Pneumosepsis.

Hypoxia-inducible factor- (HIF-) 1α has been implicated in the ability of cells to adapt to alterations in oxygen levels. Bacterial stimuli can induce HIF1α in immune cells, including those of myeloid origin. We here determined the role of myeloid cell HIF1α in the host response during pneumonia and sepsis caused by the common human pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae. To this end, we generated mice deficient for HIF1α in myeloid cells (LysM-cre × Hif1α fl/fl) or neutrophils (Mrp8-cre × Hif1α fl/fl) and infected these with Klebsiella pneumoniae via the airways. Myeloid, but not neutrophil, HIF1α-deficient mice had increased bacterial loads in the lungs and distant organs after infection as compared to control mice, pointing at a role for HIF1α in macrophages. Myeloid HIF1α-deficient mice did not show increased bacterial growth after intravenous infection, suggesting that their phenotype during pneumonia was mediated by lung macrophages. Alveolar and lung interstitial macrophages from LysM-cre × Hif1α fl/fl mice produced lower amounts of the immune enhancing cytokine tumor necrosis factor upon stimulation with Klebsiella, while their capacity to phagocytose or to produce reactive oxygen species was unaltered. Alveolar macrophages did not upregulate glycolysis in response to lipopolysaccharide, irrespective of HIF1α presence. These data suggest a role for HIF1α expressed in lung macrophages in protective innate immunity during pneumonia caused by a common bacterial pathogen.

Bronchial Epithelial Tet2 Maintains Epithelial Integrity during Acute Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pneumonia.

Respiratory epithelial cells are important for pulmonary innate immune responses during Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 2 (Tet2) has been implicated in the regulation of host defense by myeloid and lymphoid cells, but whether Tet2 also contributes to epithelial responses during pneumonia is unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of bronchial epithelial Tet2 in acute pneumonia caused by P. aeruginosa To this end, we crossed mice with Tet2 flanked by two Lox-P sites (Tet2fl/fl mice) with mice expressing Cre recombinase under the bronchial epithelial cell-specific Cc10 promoter (Cc10Cre mice) to generate bronchial epithelial cell-specific Tet2-deficient (Tet2fl/fl Cc10Cre ) mice. Six hours after infection with P. aeruginosa,Tet2fl/fl Cc10Cre and wild-type mice had similar bacterial loads in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). At this time point, Tet2fl/fl Cc10Cre mice displayed reduced mRNA levels of the chemokines Cxcl1, Cxcl2, and Ccl20 in bronchial brushes. However, Cxcl1, Cxcl2, and Ccl20 protein levels and leukocyte recruitment in BALF were not different between groups. Tet2fl/fl Cc10Cre mice had increased protein levels in BALF after infection, indicating a disturbed epithelial barrier function, which was corroborated by reduced mRNA expression of tight junction protein 1 and occludin in bronchial brushes. Differences detected between Tet2fl/fl Cc10Cre and wild-type mice were no longer present at 24 h after infection. These results suggest that bronchial epithelial Tet2 contributes to maintaining epithelial integrity by enhancing intracellular connections between epithelial cells during the early phase of P. aeruginosa pneumonia.

Caspase-11 contributes to pulmonary host defense against Klebsiella pneumoniae and local activation of coagulation.

Klebsiella (K.) pneumoniae is a common cause of gram-negative pneumonia and sepsis. Caspase-11 is an intracellular receptor for lipopolysaccharide and regulates pyroptosis, a specific form of inflammatory cell death, which aids in host defense against intracellular gram-negative bacteria. Recently, caspase-11 has also been implicated in blood coagulation. Previously, we found that local fibrin formation contributes to protective immunity against Klebsiella infection of the lung. The aim of the present study was to determine the role of caspase-11 in host defense during K. pneumoniae-evoked pneumonia and sepsis. Therefore, we infected wild-type and caspase-11-deficient (Casp11-/-) mice with a low-dose K. pneumoniae via the airways to induce a gradually evolving pneumosepsis. Casp11-/- mice displayed increased bacterial numbers in the lung 12 h and 48 h after inoculation. Analysis of pulmonary IL-1α, IL-1ß, and TNF levels showed reduced IL-1α levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and increased TNF levels in the lung of Casp11-/- mice at 48 h after inoculation. Lung γH2AX staining (marker for cell death), lung pathology and neutrophil influx in the lung, as well as bacterial dissemination and organ damage, however, were not altered in Casp11-/- mice after Klebsiella infection. Strikingly, analysis of cross-linked fibrin and D-dimer (markers for coagulation) revealed significantly less fibrin formation in the lungs of Casp11-/- mice at either time point after Klebsiella infection. These data reveal that caspase-11 contributes to protective immunity against K. pneumoniae possibly by activation of blood coagulation in the lung.

Platelet glycoprotein VI aids in local immunity during pneumonia-derived sepsis caused by gram-negative bacteria.

Platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein VI (GPVI) and podoplanin receptor C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC2) are receptors implicated in platelet activation that both signal via an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif. Platelets are necessary for host defense and prevention of hemorrhage during sepsis, but the role of platelet GPVI and CLEC2 herein is unknown. To investigate this, we infected mice depleted of platelet GPVI or CLEC2 by antibody treatment or GPVI-/- mice with the common human sepsis pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae via the airways to induce pneumonia-derived sepsis. The GPVI ligand collagen and the CLEC2 ligand podoplanin were constitutively present in the lung, whereas the GPVI ligands fibrin and histone were induced during pneumonia. During late-stage infection, both mice depleted of GPVI and GPVI-/- mice showed increased bacterial growth in lungs, and GPVI-/- mice also showed increased bacterial growth in distant body sites. Despite higher bacterial loads, GPVI-depleted mice showed reduced platelet numbers, platelet activation, and platelet-leukocyte complex formation in the bronchoalveolar space. Consistently, in human whole blood, GPVI stimulation of platelets increased platelet-leukocyte complex formation and leukocyte activation, which was accompanied by enhanced phagocytosis of Klebsiella GPVI-depleted mice showed increased lung hemorrhage during infection, but not to the extent observed in platelet-depleted mice, and lung bleeding was not significantly different between GPVI-/- and wild-type mice. CLEC2 depletion did not affect any of the responses during pneumonia. These results suggest that platelet GPVI, but not CLEC2, contributes to local host defense during pneumonia-derived sepsis by enhancing leukocyte function.

Role of Peptidylarginine Deiminase 4 in Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation and Host Defense during Klebsiella pneumoniae-Induced Pneumonia-Derived Sepsis.

Peptidylarginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) catalyzes citrullination of histones, an important step for neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation. We aimed to determine the role of PAD4 during pneumonia. Markers of NET formation were measured in lavage fluid from airways of critically ill patients. NET formation and host defense were studied during pneumonia-derived sepsis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae in PAD4+/+ and PAD4-/- mice. Patients with pneumosepsis, compared with those with nonpulmonary disease, showed increased citrullinated histone 3 (CitH3) levels in their airways and a trend toward elevated levels of NET markers cell-free DNA and nucleosomes. During murine pneumosepsis, CitH3 levels were increased in the lungs of PAD4+/+ but not of PAD4-/- mice. Combined light and electron microscopy showed NET-like structures surrounding Klebsiella in areas of CitH3 staining in the lung; however, these were also seen in PAD4-/- mice with absent CitH3 lung staining. Moreover, cell-free DNA and nucleosome levels were mostly similar in both groups. Moreover, Klebsiella and LPS could still induce NETosis in PAD4-/- neutrophils. Both groups showed largely similar bacterial growth, lung inflammation, and organ injury. In conclusion, these data argue against a major role for PAD4 in NET formation, host defense, or organ injury during pneumonia-derived sepsis.