Combination therapy with exenatide decreases the dapagliflozin-induced changes in brain responses to anticipation and consumption of palatable food in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial.

AIMS: Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors induce less weight loss than expected. This may be explained by sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor-induced alterations in central reward- and satiety circuits, leading to increased appetite and food intake. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists reduce appetite and body weight because of direct and indirect effects on the brain. We investigated the separate and combined effects of dapagliflozin and exenatide on the brain in response to the anticipation and consumption of food in people with obesity and type 2 diabetes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: As part of a larger study, this was a 16 week, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Subjects with obesity and type 2 diabetes were randomized (1:1:1:1) to dapagliflozin 10 mg with exenatide-matched placebo, exenatide twice-daily 10 µg with dapagliflozin-matched placebo, dapagliflozin plus exenatide, or double placebo. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, the effects of treatments on brain responses to the anticipation of food and food receipt were assessed after 10 days and 16 weeks. RESULTS: After 10 days, dapagliflozin increased activation in right amygdala and right caudate nucleus in response to the anticipation of food, and tended to decrease activation in right amygdala in response to actual food receipt. After 16 weeks, no changes in brain activation were observed with dapagliflozin. Dapagliflozin plus exenatide reduced activation in right caudate nucleus and amygdala to the anticipation of food, and decreased activation in the right amygdala in response to food receipt after 16 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: The dapagliflozin-induced changes in brain activation may contribute to the discrepancy between observed and expected weight loss with dapagliflozin. Exenatide blunted the dapagliflozin-induced changes in brain activation, which may contribute to the additional weight loss with combined treatment.

Cerebral effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor blockade before and after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery in obese women: A proof-of-concept resting-state functional MRI study.

AIM: To assess the effects of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery (RYGB)-related changes in glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) on cerebral resting-state functioning in obese women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In nine obese females aged 40-54 years in the fasted state, we studied the effects of RYGB and GLP-1 on five a priori selected networks implicated in food- and reward-related processes as well as environment monitoring (default mode, right frontoparietal, basal ganglia, insula/anterior cingulate and anterior cingulate/orbitofrontal networks). RESULTS: Before surgery, GLP-1 receptor blockade (using exendin9-39) was associated with increased right caudate nucleus (basal ganglia network) and decreased right middle frontal (right frontoparietal network) connectivity compared with placebo. RYGB resulted in decreased right orbitofrontal (insula/anterior cingulate network) connectivity. In the default mode network, after surgery, GLP-1 receptor blockade had a larger effect on connectivity in this region than GLP-1 receptor blockade before RYGB (all PFWE < .05). Results remained similar after correction for changes in body weight. Default mode and right frontoparietal network connectivity changes were related to changes in body mass index and food scores after RYGB. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest GLP-1 involvement in resting-state networks related to food and reward processes and monitoring of the internal and external environment, pointing to a potential role for GLP-1-induced changes in resting-state connectivity in RYGB-mediated weight loss and appetite control.

Cortical and subcortical gray matter structural alterations in normoglycemic obese and type 2 diabetes patients: relationship with adiposity, glucose, and insulin.

Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is associated with structural cortical and subcortical alterations, although it is insufficiently clear if these alterations are driven by obesity or by diabetes and its associated complications. We used FreeSurfer5.3 and FSL-FIRST to determine cortical thickness, volume and surface area, and subcortical gray matter volume in a group of 16 normoglycemic obese subjects and 28 obese T2DM patients without clinically manifest micro- and marcoangiopathy, and compared them to 31 lean normoglycemic controls. Forward regression analysis was used to determine demographic and clinical correlates of altered (sub)cortical structure. Exploratively, vertex-wise correlations between cortical structure and fasting glucose and insulin were calculated. Compared with controls, obese T2DM patients showed lower right insula thickness and lower left lateral occipital surface area (PFWE < 0.05). Normoglycemic obese versus controls had lower thickness (PFWE < 0.05) in the right insula and inferior frontal gyrus, and higher amygdala and thalamus volume. Thalamus volume and left paracentral surface area were also higher in this group compared with obese T2DM patients. Age, sex, BMI, fasting glucose, and cholesterol were related to these (sub)cortical alterations in the whole group (all P < 0.05). Insulin were related to temporal and frontal structural deficits (all PFWE < 0.05). Parietal/occipital structural deficits may constitute early T2DM-related cerebral alterations, whereas in normoglycemic obese subjects, regions involved in emotion, appetite, satiety regulation, and inhibition were affected. Central adiposity and elevated fasting glucose may constitute risk factors.

Alterations in white matter volume and integrity in obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is characterized by obesity, hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. Both T2DM and obesity are associated with cerebral complications, including an increased risk of cognitive impairment and dementia, however the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. In the current study, we aimed to determine the relative contributions of obesity and the presence of T2DM to altered white matter structure. We used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to measure white matter integrity and volume in obese T2DM patients without micro- or macrovascular complications, age- gender- and BMI-matched normoglycemic obese subjects and age- and gender-matched normoglycemic lean subjects. We found that obese T2DM patients compared with lean subjects had lower axial diffusivity (in the right corticospinal tract, right inferior fronto-occipital tract, right superior longitudinal fasciculus and right forceps major) and reduced white matter volume (in the right inferior parietal lobe and the left external capsule region). In normoglycemic obese compared with lean subjects axial diffusivity as well as white matter volume tended to be reduced, whereas there were no significant differences between normoglycemic obese subjects and T2DM patients. Decreased white matter integrity and volume were univariately related to higher age, being male, higher BMI, HbA1C and fasting glucose and insulin levels. However, multivariate analyses demonstrated that only BMI was independently related to white matter integrity, and age, gender and BMI to white matter volume loss. Our data indicate that obese T2DM patients have reduced white matter integrity and volume, but that this is largely explained by BMI, rather than T2DM per se.

Endogenous GLP-1 mediates postprandial reductions in activation in central reward and satiety areas in patients with type 2 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The central nervous system (CNS) is a major player in the regulation of food intake. The gut hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) has been proposed to have an important role in this regulation by relaying information about nutritional status to the CNS. We hypothesised that endogenous GLP-1 has effects on CNS reward and satiety circuits. METHODS: This was a randomised, crossover, placebo-controlled intervention study, performed in a university medical centre in the Netherlands. We included patients with type 2 diabetes and healthy lean control subjects. Individuals were eligible if they were 40-65 years. Inclusion criteria for the healthy lean individuals included a BMI <25 kg/m(2) and normoglycaemia. Inclusion criteria for the patients with type 2 diabetes included BMI >26 kg/m(2), HbA1c levels between 42 and 69 mmol/mol (6.0-8.5%) and treatment for diabetes with only oral glucose-lowering agents. We assessed CNS activation, defined as blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal, in response to food pictures in obese patients with type 2 diabetes (n = 20) and healthy lean individuals (n = 20) using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). fMRI was performed in the fasted state and after meal intake on two occasions, once during infusion of the GLP-1 receptor antagonist exendin 9-39, which was administered to block actions of endogenous GLP-1, and on the other occasion during saline (placebo) infusion. Participants were blinded for the type of infusion. The order of infusion was determined by block randomisation. The primary outcome was the difference in BOLD signal, i.e. in CNS activation, in predefined regions in the CNS in response to viewing food pictures. RESULTS: All patients were included in the analyses. Patients with type 2 diabetes showed increased CNS activation in CNS areas involved in the regulation of feeding (insula, amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex) in response to food pictures compared with lean individuals (p ≤ 0.04). Meal intake reduced activation in the insula in response to food pictures in both groups (p ≤ 0.05), but this was more pronounced in patients with type 2 diabetes. Blocking actions of endogenous GLP-1 significantly prevented meal-induced reductions in bilateral insula activation in response to food pictures in patients with type 2 diabetes (p ≤ 0.03). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our findings support the hypothesis that endogenous GLP-1 is involved in postprandial satiating effects in the CNS of obese patients with type 2 diabetes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT 01363609. Funding The study was funded in part by a grant from Novo Nordisk.

Eating behavior modulates the sensitivity to the central effects of GLP-1 receptor agonist treatment: a secondary analysis of a randomized trial.

AIMS: We investigated if individuals with higher emotional eating scores are less sensitive to the effects of a GLP-1RA on central responses to food cues. Additionally, we investigated the associations of higher external and restraint eating scores with the sensitivity to the central effects of GLP-1RA. METHODS: This secondary analysis of a randomized crossover study in people with obesity and type 2 diabetes, consisted of two periods of 12-week treatment with liraglutide or insulin glargine. Using functional MRI, we assessed the relation between baseline eating behavior and the effects of the GLP-1RA liraglutide compared with insulin after 10 days and 12 weeks of treatment on brain responses to food cues. RESULTS: After 10 days, higher emotional eating scores were associated with less pronounced GLP-1RA induced reductions in brain responses to food pictures in the amygdala, insula and caudate nucleus. In addition, higher emotional eating scores tended to be associated with less pronounced GLP-1RA increases in brain responses to chocolate milk receipt in the caudate nucleus and insula. After 12 weeks, there were no significant associations between emotional eating scores and liraglutide-induced changes in brain responses to food cues. After 10 days, baseline external eating scores were associated with less pronounced GLP-1RA induced reductions in brain responses to food pictures in the insula, amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex. After 12 weeks, baseline restraint eating scores were associated with more GLP-1RA induced reductions in brain responses to food pictures in the insula and caudate nucleus, and with more GLP-1RA induced reductions in brain responses to the anticipation of chocolate milk in the caudate nucleus. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that individuals with higher baseline emotional eating scores are less sensitive to the central effect of GLP-1RA treatment. Additionally, external eating may also decrease, whereas restraint eating may increase the sensitivity to the treatment effects of GLP-1RAs. These insights may help to optimize treatment strategies for obesity and to select patient groups with better efficacy of GLP-1RA treatment.

The effect of circulating estradiol concentrations on gonadotropin secretion in young and old castrated male-to-female transsexuals.

CONTEXT: In aging men, circulating testosterone (T) declines which is associated with an increase in the levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) , albeit insufficient to maintain T at its original level. It has been speculated that a higher sensitivity of the hypothalamus and/or pituitary for the feedback effect of circulating sex hormones in older men is responsible. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effect of experimentally varied plasma levels of estradiol on the LH and FSH secretion in young and old castrated male-to-female transsexuals, in almost absence of T. DESIGN, SUBJECTS, AND INTERVENTIONS: In 10 healthy, young (mean age 37.6 ± 6.2 years) and 11 healthy, old (mean age 68.1 ± 7.0) male-to-female transsexuals after gonadectomy plasma estradiol levels were experimentally varied with estradiol patches (the first week 100 µg/day patches, the second week 50 µg/day, the third week 25 µg/day and the fourth week no patch was applied) and plasma levels of LH and FSH were monitored after every week. RESULTS: Mean plasma bioavailable estradiol (E2) levels in the two groups ranged between 13.6 and 104 pmol/l. LH and FSH were inversely related to peripheral estradiol levels, were lower in the old group at all time points reaching statistical significance in the last week of the study when no patch was applied and estradiol levels were extremely low. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study do not support the hypothesis of an age related increasing sensitivity of the hypothalamo-pituitary compartment for the negative feedback of E2, but suggest a deficient feed-forward drive in older male-to-female transsexuals.

Effects of oestradiol on gonadotrophin levels in normal and castrated men.

CONTEXT: Testosterone inhibits gonadotrophin release in men either directly or after aromatization to oestradiol. We hypothesized that in males the androgen receptor-mediated effect of testosterone on LH release is negligible relative to that of oestradiol. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effect of experimentally induced variations of plasma oestradiol levels on LH levels in normal (physiological testosterone levels) and castrated men (very low testosterone levels). DESIGN: Prospective, open label, intervention. SUBJECTS AND INTERVENTIONS: We suppressed endogenous oestradiol in 10 young men with letrozole 2.5 mg once daily. In these men and in 10 young healthy castrated men, we restored plasma oestradiol levels with oestradiol patches (first week 100 mug/day, second week 50 mug/day, third week 25 mug/day and fourth week no oestradiol patch). MEASUREMENTS: The effect of the intervention on plasma levels of LH were monitored and compared between the groups. RESULTS: With the intervention, the mean plasma oestradiol level in the two groups varied from supraphysiological to below the lower reference range. Levels of LH mirrored plasma oestradiol levels in both the groups, as did testosterone in the intact group. Despite similar oestradiol levels, mean levels of LH were significantly higher in the castrated group compared to the intact group for all doses of oestradiol, and supraphysiological levels of oestradiol were unable to suppress LH into the physiological range in the castrated group. CONCLUSIONS: Physiological plasma oestradiol levels have a substantial suppressive effect on LH in men. However, low-normal testosterone levels are a prerequisite for suppression of LH into the normal range.

GLP-1 receptor agonists do not affect sodium intake: Exploratory analyses from two randomized clinical trials.

OBJECTIVES: Excessive sodium intake, despite current dietary advice, remains a global issue with cardiovascular and renal consequences. The aim of this study was to determine whether glucagon-like peptide receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs), used as antihyperglycemic agents for type 2 diabetes (T2DM) management, may reduce salt cravings as they are known to reduce hedonic feeding behavior and are involved in sodium homeostasis by increasing renal sodium excretion. METHODS: We performed exploratory analyses using data from two randomized, clinical crossover trials, which primarily aimed to assess the effects of GLP-1 RAs on central satiety and reward circuits and subsequent related feeding behavior. In study A, healthy, obese individuals and patients with T2DM were randomly assigned to receive intravenous administration of placebo or GLP-1 RA exenatide with or without concurrent GLP-1 receptor blockade, on separate testing days. In study B, individuals with T2DM randomly received GLP-1 RA liraglutide (titrated up to 1.8 mg daily) or titrated insulin glargine for 12 wk. In both studies, participants received an ad libitum mixed meal that served to calculate sodium intake. Moreover, salt craving was scored using a Likert scale. RESULTS: In study A, acute exenatide, parallel to reduced total food intake, reduced sodium intake in all studied groups by up to 30%. In study B, prolonged liraglutide treatment did not affect sodium or total caloric intake. Neither acute exenatide nor prolonged liraglutide treatment affected salt craving as measured by the Likert scale. CONCLUSION: Acute exenatide reduced sodium intake in light of a generalized reduction in food ingestion, while prolonged intervention with liraglutide did not lower sodium intake. Neither intervention affected salt craving. Given the known effects of these drugs on renal sodium excretion, blood pressure, and renal and cardiovascular outcome, it seems plausible to perform dedicated mechanistic studies in humans to assess the effects of GLP-1 RA administration on sodium balance.

Elevated Postoperative Endogenous GLP-1 Levels Mediate Effects of Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass on Neural Responsivity to Food Cues.

OBJECTIVE: It has been suggested that weight reduction and improvements in satiety after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) are partly mediated via postoperative neuroendocrine changes. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a gut hormone secreted after food ingestion and is associated with appetite and weight reduction, mediated via effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Secretion of GLP-1 is greatly enhanced after RYGB. We hypothesized that postoperative elevated GLP-1 levels contribute to the improved satiety regulation after RYGB via effects on the CNS. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Effects of the GLP-1 receptor antagonist exendin 9-39 (Ex9-39) and placebo were assessed in 10 women before and after RYGB. We used functional MRI to investigate CNS activation in response to visual food cues (pictures) and gustatory food cues (consumption of chocolate milk), comparing results with Ex9-39 versus placebo before and after RYGB. RESULTS: After RYGB, CNS activation was reduced in the rolandic operculum and caudate nucleus in response to viewing food pictures (P = 0.03) and in the insula in response to consumption of palatable food (P = 0.003). GLP-1 levels were significantly elevated postoperatively (P < 0.001). After RYGB, GLP-1 receptor blockade resulted in a larger increase in activation in the caudate nucleus in response to food pictures (P = 0.02) and in the insula in response to palatable food consumption (P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the effects of RYGB on CNS activation in response to visual and gustatory food cues may be mediated by central effects of GLP-1. Our findings provide further insights into the mechanisms underlying the weight-lowering effects of RYGB.

Endogenous GLP1 and GLP1 analogue alter CNS responses to palatable food consumption.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP1) affects appetite, supposedly mediated via the central nervous system (CNS). In this study, we investigate whether modulation of CNS responses to palatable food consumption may be a mechanism by which GLP1 contributes to the central regulation of feeding. Using functional MRI, we determined the effects of endogenous GLP1 and treatment with the GLP1 analogue liraglutide on CNS activation to chocolate milk receipt. Study 1 included 20 healthy lean individuals and 20 obese patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Scans were performed on two occasions: during infusion of the GLP1 receptor antagonist exendin 9-39 (blocking actions of endogenous GLP1) and during placebo infusion. Study 2 was a randomised, cross-over intervention study carried out in 20 T2DM patients, comparing treatment with liraglutide to insulin, after 10 days and 12 weeks. Compared with lean individuals, T2DM patients showed reduced activation to chocolate milk in right insula (P = 0.04). In lean individuals, blockade of endogenous GLP1 effects inhibited activation in bilateral insula (P ≤ 0.03). Treatment in T2DM with liraglutide, vs insulin, increased activation to chocolate milk in right insula and caudate nucleus after 10 days (P ≤ 0.03); however, these effects ceased to be significant after 12 weeks. Our findings in healthy lean individuals indicate that endogenous GLP1 is involved in the central regulation of feeding by affecting central responsiveness to palatable food consumption. In obese T2DM, treatment with liraglutide may improve the observed deficit in responsiveness to palatable food, which may contribute to the induction of weight loss observed during treatment. However, no long-term effects of liraglutide were observed.

Decreased Hypothalamic Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Expression in Type 2 Diabetes Patients.

CONTEXT: Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and GLP-1 receptor agonist treatment in type 2 diabetes (T2DM) reduce blood glucose and food intake. It has been suggested that these effects are partly mediated through central GLP-1 receptors (GLP-1Rs). The rodent and nonhuman primate hypothalamus show clear GLP-1R expression. However, a detailed description of GLP-1R expression in the human hypothalamus is lacking, and it is unknown whether this expression is altered in T2DM patients. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to investigate the GLP-1R distribution in the human postmortem hypothalamus and to determine whether hypothalamic GLP-1R expression is altered in T2DM patients. DESIGN: We investigated the distribution of GLP-1R expression throughout the human hypothalamus by means of in situ hybridization. We also performed quantifications of GLP-1R mRNA expression in two hypothalamic nuclei (ie, the paraventricular nucleus [PVN] and infundibular nucleus [IFN]), comparing patients with T2DM and control subjects. RESULTS: We found that GLP-1R mRNA was expressed in a number of hypothalamic nuclei including the PVN and the IFN, both involved in the regulation of energy metabolism. We observed sporadic colocalization of the GLP-1R in the IFN with the orgexigenic neuropeptide Y, agouti-related peptide, or proopiomelanocortin transcripts. Comparison of GLP-1R mRNA in the PVN and IFN between T2DM patients and control subjects revealed a decreased expression in T2DM patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our studies show that GLP-1R is widely expressed throughout the human hypothalamus. The decreased expression of GLP-1R in the PVN and IFN of T2DM patients may be related to the dysregulation of feeding behavior and glucose homeostasis in T2DM.

Liraglutide Reduces CNS Activation in Response to Visual Food Cues Only After Short-term Treatment in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) are associated with reduced appetite and body weight. We investigated whether these effects could be mediated by the central nervous system (CNS). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We performed a randomized crossover study in obese patients with type 2 diabetes (n = 20, mean age 59.3 ± 4.1 years, mean BMI 32 ± 4.7 kg/m(2)), consisting of two periods of 12-week treatment with either liraglutide 1.8 mg or insulin glargine. Using functional MRI, we determined the effects of treatment on CNS responses to viewing food pictures in the fasted condition and 30 min after meal intake. RESULTS: After 12 weeks, the decrease in HbA1c was larger with liraglutide versus insulin glargine (Δ-0.7% vs. -0.2%, P < 0.001). Body weight decreased during liraglutide versus insulin glargine (Δ-3.3 kg vs. 0.8 kg, P < 0.001). After 10 days, patients treated with liraglutide, compared with insulin glargine, showed decreased responses to food pictures in insula and putamen (P ≤ 0.02). In addition, liraglutide enhanced the satiating effect of meal intake on responses in putamen and amygdala (P ≤ 0.05). Differences between liraglutide and insulin glargine were not observed after 12 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with insulin, liraglutide decreased CNS activation significantly only after short-term treatment, suggesting that these effects of GLP-1RA on the CNS may contribute to the induction of weight loss, but not necessarily to its maintenance, in view of the absence of an effect of liraglutide on CNS activation in response to food pictures after longer-term treatment.

Emotional eating is associated with increased brain responses to food-cues and reduced sensitivity to GLP-1 receptor activation.

OBJECTIVE: The neural correlates and pathophysiology of emotional eating are insufficiently known. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), a postprandial hormone, plays a role in feeding behavior by signaling satiety to the brain. GLP-1 receptor agonists, used for treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2DM), promote weight loss. This study investigated the association between emotional eating and responses to food-cues in brain areas involved in satiety and reward processing, as well as GLP-1 receptor agonist-induced effects on these brain responses. METHODS: T2DM patients with obesity, normoglycemic individuals with obesity, and lean individuals (n = 48) were studied in a randomized placebo-controlled crossover study. Using functional MRI, we determined the relation between emotional eating and regional brain responses to visual food stimuli and acute effects of intravenous administration of the GLP-1 receptor agonist exenatide on these responses. RESULTS: Emotional eating scores positively correlated with responses to food-cues in lean subjects in the insula, in normoglycemic subjects with obesity in the insula, and in T2DM patients in the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and insula. Emotional eating scores negatively correlated with exenatide-induced reductions in responses to food-cues in normoglycemic subjects with obesity in the amygdala and in T2DM patients in the insula. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that emotional eaters have altered brain responses to food-cues and are less sensitive to the central effects of GLP-1 receptor activation.

GLP-1 receptor activation modulates appetite- and reward-related brain areas in humans.

Gut-derived hormones, such as GLP-1, have been proposed to relay information to the brain to regulate appetite. GLP-1 receptor agonists, currently used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2DM), improve glycemic control and stimulate satiety, leading to decreases in food intake and body weight. We hypothesized that food intake reduction after GLP-1 receptor activation is mediated through appetite- and reward-related brain areas. Obese T2DM patients and normoglycemic obese and lean individuals (n = 48) were studied in a randomized, crossover, placebo-controlled trial. Using functional MRI, we determined the acute effects of intravenous administration of the GLP-1 receptor agonist exenatide, with or without prior GLP-1 receptor blockade using exendin 9-39, on brain responses to food pictures during a somatostatin pancreatic-pituitary clamp. Obese T2DM patients and normoglycemic obese versus lean subjects showed increased brain responses to food pictures in appetite- and reward-related brain regions (insula and amygdala). Exenatide versus placebo decreased food intake and food-related brain responses in T2DM patients and obese subjects (in insula, amygdala, putamen, and orbitofrontal cortex). These effects were largely blocked by prior GLP-1 receptor blockade using exendin 9-39. Our findings provide novel insights into the mechanisms by which GLP-1 regulates food intake and how GLP-1 receptor agonists cause weight loss.