Unproctored online exams provide meaningful assessment of student learning.

In the United States, the onset of COVID-19 triggered a nationwide lockdown, which forced many universities to move their primary assessments from invigilated in-person exams to unproctored online exams. This abrupt change occurred midway through the Spring 2020 semester, providing an unprecedented opportunity to investigate whether online exams can provide meaningful assessments of learning relative to in-person exams on a per-student basis. Here, we present data from nearly 2,000 students across 18 courses at a large Midwestern University. Using a meta-analytic approach in which we treated each course as a separate study, we showed that online exams produced scores that highly resembled those from in-person exams at an individual level despite the online exams being unproctored-as demonstrated by a robust correlation between online and in-person exam scores. Moreover, our data showed that cheating was either not widespread or ineffective at boosting scores, and the strong assessment value of online exams was observed regardless of the type of questions asked on the exam, the course level, academic discipline, or class size. We conclude that online exams, even when unproctored, are a viable assessment tool.

High consistency of cheating and honesty in early childhood.

Three preregistered studies examined whether 5-year-old children cheat consistently or remain honest across multiple math tests. We observed high consistency in both honesty and cheating. All children who cheated on the first test continued cheating on subsequent tests, with shorter cheating latencies over time. In contrast, 77% of initially honest children maintained honesty despite repeated failure to complete the tests successfully. A brief integrity intervention helped initially honest children remain honest but failed to dissuade initially cheating children from cheating. These findings demonstrate that cheating emerges early and persists strongly in young children, underscoring the importance of early prevention efforts. They also suggest that bolstering honesty from the start may be more effective than attempting to remedy cheating after it has occurred. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Our research examines whether 5-year-old children, once they have started cheating, will continue to do so consistently. We also investigate whether 5-year-old children who are initially honest will continue to be honest subsequently. We discovered high consistency in both honesty and cheating among 5-year-old children. Almost all the children who initially cheated continued this behavior, while those who were honest stayed honest. A brief integrity-boosting intervention successfully helped 5-year-old children maintain their honesty. However, the same intervention failed to deter cheaters from cheating again. These findings underscore the importance of implementing integrity intervention as early as possible, potentially before children have had their first experience of cheating.

Infant-parent attachment and lie-telling in young children: The Generation R Study.

Insecure-attached adults are more likely to lie. However, it is unknown whether infant-parent attachment quality relates to lie-telling in early childhood. As in adults, lie-telling in early childhood might be related to attachment insecurity. However, a competing hypothesis might be plausible; lie-telling might be related to attachment security given that lie-telling in early childhood is considered an advancement in social-cognitive development. The current study is the first to investigate the link between insecure/secure and disorganized/non-disorganized attachment and lie-telling behavior in early childhood. Because lie-telling is studied in the context of cheating behavior, the association between cheating and attachment is additionally explored. A total of 560 Dutch children (287 girls) from a longitudinal cohort study (Generation R) were included in the analyses. Attachment quality with primary caregiver (secure/insecure and disorganized/non-disorganized attachment) was assessed at 14 months of age in the Strange Situation Procedure, and cheating and lie-telling were observed in games administered at 4 years of age. The results demonstrated no relationship of attachment (in)security and (dis)organization with cheating and lie-telling. Results are interpreted in light of evidence that lie-telling in early childhood is part of normative development. Limitations are discussed, including the time lag between assessments, the fact that lie-telling was measured toward a researcher instead of a caregiver, and the conceptualization of attachment in infancy versus adulthood. Attachment quality does not affect early normative lie-telling, but how and when it may affect later lying in children remains to be explored.

Young children with higher verbal intelligence are less likely to cheat.

Cheating is a pervasive unethical behavior. Existing research involving young children has mainly focused on contextual factors affecting cheating behavior, whereas cognitive factors have been relatively understudied. This study investigated the unique role of verbal and performance intelligence on young children's cheating behavior (N = 50; mean age = 5.73 years; 25 boys). Bootstrapping hierarchical logistic regression showed that children's Verbal IQ scores were significantly and negatively correlated with their cheating behavior above and beyond the contributions of age, gender, and Performance IQ scores. Children with higher Verbal IQ scores were less inclined to cheat. However, neither children's Performance IQ nor their Total IQ scores had a significant and unique correlation with cheating. These findings suggest that intelligence plays a significant role in children's cheating but that this role is limited to verbal intelligence only. In addition, this study highlights the need for researchers to go beyond the contextual factors to study the early development of cheating behavior.

Self-efficacy and cheating among young children.

This research, comprising three preregistered studies, investigated the link between self-efficacy and cheating on an academic test in 5- and 6-year-old children. Study 1 assessed children's general self-efficacy and found it to be unrelated to their cheating behavior. Study 2 assessed task-specific self-efficacy, which was not found to be associated with cheating. In Study 3, children were randomly assigned to either an experimental group, which received brief positive feedback on task-specific self-efficacy, or a control group, which received no feedback. The experimental group demonstrated significantly less cheating. These findings, for the first time, identify a specific connection between young children's self-efficacy and academic dishonesty and suggest that positive feedback on task-specific efficacy could be a simple effective strategy for fostering academic integrity early on.

Elementary school-aged children's perceptions of academic dishonesty: Definitions and moral evaluations of cheating behaviors in school.

A total of 76 children (Mage = 9 years 5 months, SD = 2.22 years) participated in a structured interview about their experiences with and knowledge of academic dishonesty. Overall, 27% of the sample reported having cheated in school. Most of these children were 10 to 13 years old, and the most prevalent form of cheating behavior reported was using forbidden materials during a test. Children's age group was a significant positive predictor of their reported cheating history; however, no significant difference was found between children's gender and engagement with cheating. Children's moral evaluations of cheating did not predict their reported cheating history, nor did children's parents' cheating history. Vignette type (cheating vs. non-cheating), age group, and the interaction between vignette type and age group were significant predictors of children's ability to accurately identify behaviors that constitute cheating. Children rated cheating behaviors as significantly less moral than non-cheating behaviors. Overall, the current results provide insight into what forms of cheating behavior children engage in at the elementary school-age level.

Don't be a rat: An investigation of the taboo against reporting other students for cheating.

This research examines barriers to reporting academic dishonesty in early adulthood (Study 1; N = 92) and adolescence (Study 2; N = 137). Participants were asked to describe a recent time they observed a peer cheating and to reflect on their decision about whether to report the cheating. They also responded to hypothetical scenarios about observing typical cheating actions, and the presence of social motives (e.g., whether people who report tend to gain reputations for being snitches) was manipulated in each scenario. Even though participants judged reporting to be the morally right thing to do, doing so was rare and approval for it was low, especially in adolescence. Participants also tended to say they would rather be friends with people who do not report cheaters than with those who do. Participants reasoned about a variety of social concerns to support their judgments about reporting (e.g., concern about their relationship with the cheater, concerns for others' welfare), and the manipulated social motives in the hypothetical scenarios significantly influenced judgments about reporting. These findings inform our understanding of the social dynamics that contribute to decisions about policing academic honesty.

Cheating in childhood: Exploring the link between parental reports of problem behaviors and dishonesty on simulated academic tests.

This study investigated the relationship between parental reports of children's behavioral problems and their cheating behaviors on simulated academic tests, addressing a significant gap in understanding early childhood academic cheating and its potential links to broader behavioral issues. We hypothesized that children's early problem behaviors would be predictive of their academic cheating. To test these hypotheses, children aged 4 to 12 years took part in six unmonitored academic tests that measured their cheating behaviors while their parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire elsewhere. Separate hierarchical linear regressions revealed that children's problem behaviors, as reported by parents, overall significantly predict children's cheating behaviors even after accounting for demographic variables such as age, gender, ethnicity, and parental religiosity. Specifically, the Conduct Problems subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire showed a significant and unique association with children's cheating behaviors above and beyond the common contributions of all predictors. However, the Child Behavior Checklist scores and the scores on the other Strengths and Difficulties subscales were not significantly or uniquely related to cheating. These findings offer new insight into simulated childhood academic cheating and its relation to problem behaviors observed by parents.

Academic cheating in early childhood: Role of age, gender, personality, and self-efficacy.

The current study investigated the association of children's age, gender, ethnicity, Big Five personality traits, and self-efficacy with their academic cheating behaviors. Academic cheating is a rampant problem that has been documented in adolescents and adults for nearly a century, but our understanding of the early development and factors influencing academic cheating is still weak. Using Zoom, the current study recruited children aged 4 to 12 years (N = 388), measured their cheating behaviors through six tasks simulating academic testing scenarios, and assessed their Big Five personality traits and self-efficacy through a modified Berkeley Puppet Interview paradigm, as well as age and gender. We found that children cheated significantly less with increased age and that boys cheated significantly more than girls. However, neither Big Five personality traits nor self-efficacy were significantly correlated with children's cheating. These findings suggest that academic cheating is a developing issue from early to middle childhood and that factors such as gender socialization may play a role in such development. Personal characteristics such as personality traits and self-efficacy may undergo additional development before their associations with cheating become robust, as reported in the adult literature.

Prevalence estimates for COVID-19-related health behaviors based on the cheating detection triangular model.

BACKGROUND: Survey studies in medical and health sciences predominantly apply a conventional direct questioning (DQ) format to gather private and highly personal information. If the topic under investigation is sensitive or even stigmatizing, such as COVID-19-related health behaviors and adherence to non-pharmaceutical interventions in general, DQ surveys can lead to nonresponse and untruthful answers due to the influence of social desirability bias (SDB). These effects seriously threaten the validity of the results obtained, potentially leading to distorted prevalence estimates for behaviors for which the prevalence in the population is unknown. While this issue cannot be completely avoided, indirect questioning techniques (IQTs) offer a means to mitigate the harmful influence of SDB by guaranteeing the confidentiality of individual responses. The present study aims at assessing the validity of a recently proposed IQT, the Cheating Detection Triangular Model (CDTRM), in estimating the prevalence of COVID-19-related health behaviors while accounting for cheaters who disregard the instructions. METHODS: In an online survey of 1,714 participants in Taiwan, we obtained CDTRM prevalence estimates via an Expectation-Maximization algorithm for three COVID-19-related health behaviors with different levels of sensitivity. The CDTRM estimates were compared to DQ estimates and to available official statistics provided by the Taiwan Centers for Disease Control. Additionally, the CDTRM allowed us to estimate the share of cheaters who disregarded the instructions and adjust the prevalence estimates for the COVID-19-related health behaviors accordingly. RESULTS: For a behavior with low sensitivity, CDTRM and DQ estimates were expectedly comparable and in line with official statistics. However, for behaviors with medium and high sensitivity, CDTRM estimates were higher and thus presumably more valid than DQ estimates. Analogously, the estimated cheating rate increased with higher sensitivity of the behavior under study. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings strongly support the assumption that the CDTRM successfully controlled for the validity-threatening influence of SDB in a survey on three COVID-19-related health behaviors. Consequently, the CDTRM appears to be a promising technique to increase estimation validity compared to conventional DQ for health-related behaviors, and sensitive attributes in general, for which a strong influence of SDB is to be expected.

The evolution of parasitism from mutualism in wasps pollinating the fig, Ficus microcarpa, in Yunnan Province, China.

Theory identifies factors that can undermine the evolutionary stability of mutualisms. However, theory's relevance to mutualism stability in nature is controversial. Detailed comparative studies of parasitic species that are embedded within otherwise mutualistic taxa (e.g., fig pollinator wasps) can identify factors that potentially promote or undermine mutualism stability. We describe results from behavioral, morphological, phylogenetic, and experimental studies of two functionally distinct, but closely related, Eupristina wasp species associated with the monoecious host fig, Ficus microcarpa, in Yunnan Province, China. One (Eupristina verticillata) is a competent pollinator exhibiting morphologies and behaviors consistent with observed seed production. The other (Eupristina sp.) lacks these traits, and dramatically reduces both female and male reproductive success of its host. Furthermore, observations and experiments indicate that individuals of this parasitic species exhibit greater relative fitness than the pollinators, in both indirect competition (individual wasps in separate fig inflorescences) and direct competition (wasps of both species within the same fig). Moreover, phylogenetic analyses suggest that these two Eupristina species are sister taxa. By the strictest definition, the nonpollinating species represents a "cheater" that has descended from a beneficial pollinating mutualist. In sharp contrast to all 15 existing studies of actively pollinated figs and their wasps, the local F. microcarpa exhibit no evidence for host sanctions that effectively reduce the relative fitness of wasps that do not pollinate. We suggest that the lack of sanctions in the local hosts promotes the loss of specialized morphologies and behaviors crucial for pollination and, thereby, the evolution of cheating.

Frequency of enforcement is more important than the severity of punishment in reducing violation behaviors.

External enforcement policies aimed to reduce violations differ on two key components: the probability of inspection and the severity of the punishment. Different lines of research offer different insights regarding the relative importance of each component. In four studies, students and Prolific crowdsourcing participants (Ntotal = 816) repeatedly faced temptations to commit violations under two enforcement policies. Controlling for expected value, we found that a policy combining a high probability of inspection with a low severity of fines (HILS) was more effective than an economically equivalent policy that combined a low probability of inspection with a high severity of fines (LIHS). The advantage of prioritizing inspection frequency over punishment severity (HILS over LIHS) was greater for participants who, in the absence of enforcement, started out with a higher violation rate. Consistent with studies of decisions from experience, frequent enforcement with small fines was more effective than rare severe fines even when we announced the severity of the fine in advance to boost deterrence. In addition, in line with the phenomenon of underweighting of rare events, the effect was stronger when the probability of inspection was rarer (as in most real-life inspection probabilities) and was eliminated under moderate inspection probabilities. We thus recommend that policymakers looking to effectively reduce recurring violations among noncriminal populations should consider increasing inspection rates rather than punishment severity.

Is it OK if I cheat? Implementation of, and student response to, iterative change in an undergraduate medical degree high stakes OSCE due to issues of academic integrity.

PURPOSE OF ARTICLE: This paper explores issues pertinent to teaching and assessment of clinical skills at the early stages of medical training, aimed at preventing academic integrity breaches. The drivers for change, the changes themselves, and student perceptions of those changes are described. METHODS: Iterative changes to a summative high stakes Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) assessment in an undergraduate medical degree were undertaken in response to perceived/known breaches of assessment security. Initial strategies focused on implementing best practice teaching and assessment design principles, in association with increased examination security. RESULTS: These changes failed to prevent alleged sharing of examination content between students. A subsequent iteration saw a more radical deviation from classic OSCE assessment design, with students being assessed on equivalent competencies, not identical items (OSCE stations). This more recent approach was broadly acceptable to students, and did not result in breaches of academic integrity that were detectable. CONCLUSIONS: Ever increasing degrees of assessment security need not be the response to breaches of academic integrity. Use of non-identical OSCE items across a cohort, underpinned by constructive alignment of teaching and assessment may mitigate the incentives to breach academic integrity, though face validity is not universal.

Is use of ChatGPT cheating? Students of health professions perceptions.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to explore student perceptions of generative AI use and cheating in health professions education. The authors sought to understand how students believe generative AI is acceptable to use in coursework. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Five faculty members surveyed students across health professions graduate programs using an updated, validated survey instrument. Students anonymously completed the survey online, which took 10-20 min. Data were then tabulated and reported in aggregate form. RESULTS: Nearly 400 students from twelve academic programs including health and rehabilitation science, occupational therapy, physical therapy, physician assistant studies, speech-language pathology, health administration and health informatics, undergraduate healthcare studies, nurse anesthesiology, and cardiovascular perfusion. The majority of students identify the threat of generative AI to graded assignments such as tests and papers, but many believe it is acceptable to use these tools to learn and study outside of graded assignments. CONCLUSIONS: Generative AI tools provide new options for students to study and learn. Graduate students in the health professions are currently using generative AI applications but are not universally aware or in agreement of how its use threatens academic integrity. Faculty should provide specific guidance on how generative AI applications may be used.

An Iterative Scale Purification Procedure on lz for the Detection of Aberrant Responses.

Many person-fit statistics have been proposed to detect aberrant response behaviors (e.g., cheating, guessing). Among them, lz is one of the most widely used indices. The computation of lz assumes the item and person parameters are known. In reality, they often have to be estimated from data. The better the estimation, the better lz will perform. When aberrant behaviors occur, the person and item parameter estimations are inaccurate, which in turn degrade the performance of lz. In this study, an iterative procedure was developed to attain more accurate person parameter estimates for improved performance of lz. A series of simulations were conducted to evaluate the iterative procedure under two conditions of item parameters, known and unknown, and three aberrant response styles of difficulty-sharing cheating, random-sharing cheating, and random guessing. The results demonstrated the superiority of the iterative procedure over the non-iterative one in maintaining control of Type-I error rates and improving the power of detecting aberrant responses. The proposed procedure was applied to a high-stake intelligence test.

Trustworthy High-Performance Multiplayer Games with Trust-but-Verify Protocol Sensor Validation.

Multiplayer online video games are a multibillion-dollar industry, to which widespread cheating presents a significant threat. Game designers compromise on game security to meet demanding performance targets, but reduced security increases the risk of potential malicious exploitation. To mitigate this risk, game developers implement alternative security sensors. The alternative sensors themselves become a liability due to their intrusive and taxing nature. Online multiplayer games with real-time gameplay are known to be difficult to secure due to the cascading exponential nature of many-many relationships among the components involved. Behavior-based security sensor schemes, or referees (a trusted third party), could be a potential solution but require frameworks to obtain the game state information they need. We describe our Trust-Verify Game Protocol (TVGP), which is a sensor protocol intended for low-trust environments and designed to provide game state information to help support behavior-based cheat-sensing detection schemes. We argue TVGP is an effective solution for applying an independent trusted referee capability to trust-lacking subdomains and demands high-performance requirements. Our experimental results validate high efficiency and performance standards for TVGP. We identify and discuss the operational domain assumptions of the TVGP validation testing presented here.

"I know what you did": Associations between relationship satisfaction and reported and suspected extramarital sex.

Although extradyadic sex has been repeatedly shown to be inversely associated with relationship quality, researchers have rarely evaluated partners' beliefs (or suspicions) of such behavior and the degree to which relationship quality varies as a function of suspected extradyadic sex. This study examined, in a United States probability sample of couples (National Couples Survey; N = 236 couples), the (a) prevalence of cross-tabulations of wives' and husbands' reports of their own history of extramarital sex (i.e., sexual intercourse) and their beliefs about their partner's history of extramarital sex having ever occurred in the couple's relationship, and (b) associations between reported and suspected extramarital sex and current relationship satisfaction. The prevalence of different combinations of spouses' reported history of their own extramarital sex and suspicions of their partner's history of extramarital sex are presented. Results indicated that both spouses' reports of their own history of and their suspicion of their partner's history of extramarital sex were significantly and inversely associated with wives' and husbands' relationship satisfaction. These findings underscore the importance of examining not only respondents' report of their own extramarital sexual involvement but also their beliefs about their partner's extramarital sexual involvement in future research on relationship and individual functioning outcomes associated with extramarital sex.

Using technology to prevent fraud in high stakes national school examinations: Evidence from Indonesia.

Cheating reduces the signaling value of examinations. It also shifts the focus of teachers and students away from learning. Combating widespread cheating is difficult as students, teachers, and bureaucrats all benefit from high reported grades. We evaluate the impact of computer-based testing (CBT), an at-scale policy implemented by the Indonesian government to reduce widespread cheating in the national examinations. Exploiting the phased roll-out of the program from 2015 to 2019, we find that test scores declined dramatically, by 0.5 standard deviations, after the introduction of CBT. Schools with response patterns that indicated cheating prior to CBT adoption experienced a steeper decline. The effect is similar between schools with and without access to a computer lab, indicating that the reduction in the opportunity to cheat is the main reason for the test score decline. In districts with high adoption of CBT, schools that still used paper-based exams cheated less and scored lower, indicating spillovers of CBT. The results highlight the potential role of technology in improving the effectiveness in efforts to overcome collusive behavior in the education sector.

Self-deception: Distorted metacognitive process in ambiguous contexts.

As one of the commonly used folk psychological concepts, self-deception has been intensively discussed yet is short of solid ground from cognitive neuroscience. Self-deception is a biased cognitive process of information to obtain or maintain a false belief that could be both self-enhancing or self-diminishing. Study 1 (N = 152) captured self-deception by adopting a modified numerical discrimination task that provided cheating opportunities, quantifying errors in predicting future performance (via item-response theory model), and measuring the belief of how good they are at solving the task (i.e., self-efficacy belief). By examining whether self-efficacy belief is based upon actual ability (true belief) or prediction errors (false belief), Study 1 showed that self-deception occurred in the effortless (easier access to answer cues) rather than effortful (harder access to answer cues) cheating opportunity conditions, suggesting high ambiguity in attributions facilitates self-deception. Studies 2 and 3 probed the neural source of self-deception, linking self-deception with the metacognitive process. Both studies replicated behavioral results from Study 1. Study 2 (ERP study; N = 55) found that the amplitude of frontal slow wave significantly differed between participants with positive/self-enhancing and negative/self-diminishing self-deceiving tendencies in incorrect predictions while remaining similar in correct predictions. Study 3 (functional magnetic resonance imaging study; N = 33) identified self-deceiving associated activity in the anterior medial prefrontal cortex and showed that effortless cheating context increased cheating behaviors that further facilitated self-deception. Our findings suggest self-deception is a false belief associated with a distorted metacognitive mental process that requires ambiguity in attributions of behaviors.

Reduced social function in experimentally evolved Dictyostelium discoideum implies selection for social conflict in nature.

Many microbes interact with one another, but the difficulty of directly observing these interactions in nature makes interpreting their adaptive value complicated. The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum forms aggregates wherein some cells are sacrificed for the benefit of others. Within chimaeric aggregates containing multiple unrelated lineages, cheaters can gain an advantage by undercontributing, but the extent to which wild D. discoideum has adapted to cheat is not fully clear. In this study, we experimentally evolved D. discoideum in an environment where there were no selective pressures to cheat or resist cheating in chimaeras. Dictyostelium discoideum lines grown in this environment evolved reduced competitiveness within chimaeric aggregates and reduced ability to migrate during the slug stage. By contrast, we did not observe a reduction in cell number, a trait for which selection was not relaxed. The observed loss of traits that our laboratory conditions had made irrelevant suggests that these traits were adaptations driven and maintained by selective pressures D. discoideum faces in its natural environment. Our results suggest that D. discoideum faces social conflict in nature, and illustrate a general approach that could be applied to searching for social or non-social adaptations in other microbes.