Does Grit Compensate for Family Background Disadvantage in Predicting Mental Health Difficulties? A Longitudinal Study of Chinese Migrant and Urban Children.

The significant population of Chinese rural-to-urban migrant children has sparked considerable domestic and international concern regarding their disadvantaged family circumstances and their escalating prevalence of internalizing and externalizing problems. Derived from the resource substitution hypothesis, non-cognitive factors such as personality traits may act as "substitution" resources for educational outcomes of children from less privileged families. Yet, the compensatory role of personality traits as substitution resources in children's mental health has received limited attention, including that of migrant children. This study examined the interplay of trait-like grit and family SES on emotional and conduct problems among Chinese migrant and urban children. The current sample consisted of 770 migrant children (Mage = 10.45 and SDage = 0.68 years; 38.4% girls) and their 222 urban counterparts (Mage = 10.34 and SDage = 0.46 years; 45.5% girls). Moderated polynomial regressions with response surface analysis on a two-wave data with an interval of over six months showed that grit served as a "substitution" resource for the less socioeconomically advantaged children. The compensatory effect of perseverance of effort on urban children's emotional problems and that of consistency of interest on migrant children's conduct problems were visualized. Moreover, the two compensatory effects were found to be robust and unique, even after children's effortful control, a grit-related construct, was taken into account. These findings not only support the resource substitution hypothesis, but also underscore the protective role that grit plays in children under less privileged environments.

Whether and How Family Functioning Relates to the Development of Self-Compassion and Emotion Regulation in Chinese Migrant Children? A Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis.

Given the heightened difficulties in social adjustment and the potential diminishment of social networks encountered by migrant children, family functioning may play a crucial role in their development. Existing research has highlighted the significance of family environment in shaping adolescent self-compassion and emotion regulation, which can serve as protective factors against adverse emotional outcomes. However, there remains a lack of comparative studies to examine the specific effects of family functioning on fostering self-compassion and emotion regulation in both migrant and their non-migrant counterparts. The present study utilized a three-wave longitudinal design with 12-month intervals to examine the longitudinal effects of family functioning on self-compassion and emotion regulation, while also examining potential variations in these associations between migrant and non-migrant children. A total of 244 migrant children and 491 non-migrant children from a high school in Guangdong Province (357 females; Mage = 15.3 at Time 1, SDage = 0.53) participated in this study. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) were utilized to examine the longitudinal associations among family functioning, self-compassion, and emotion regulation in both groups. The results showed that, at the within-person level, family functioning reciprocally predicted self-compassion over time among migrant children, and it also exerted an indirect effect on emotion regulation, mediated by self-compassion. Among non-migrant children, emotion regulation positively predicted self-compassion over time, with no other observed cross-lagged effects.

Peer attachment and self-esteem mediate the relationship between family function and social anxiety in migrant children in China.

BACKGROUND: Social anxiety is a frequently reported symptom in children and adolescents. The literature suggests that family function is related to symptoms of social anxiety in children. However, relatively little is known about the potential mechanisms underlying the relationship between family function and social anxiety. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to examine the roles of peer attachment and self-esteem in the relationship between family function and social anxiety in a sample of migrant children in China. METHODS: A total of 437 participants (54.9% male; meanage = 10.87 years) were selected from two public schools of migrant children in two areas of Hangzhou and Jiaxing, the major labor-importing cities in China, in May 2016. All participants completed four questionnaires assessing family function, peer attachment, self-esteem, and social anxiety. RESULTS: The results showed that family function was bivariately and significantly related to symptoms of social anxiety. Additionally, self-esteem fully mediated the relationship between family function and social anxiety peer attachment. Moreover, the relationship between family function and social anxiety was fully mediated by peer attachment and self-esteem (in that order). CONCLUSIONS: Peer attachment and self-esteem serve as critical pathways linking family function and social anxiety. Thus, tailored interventions should consider the roles of peer attachment and self-esteem to alleviate symptoms of social anxiety in migrant children.

Profiles and Transitions of Loneliness and Depressive Symptoms among Migrant Children: Predictive Role of Bullying Victimization.

Although loneliness and depressive symptoms are particularly prominent among migrant children and often occur simultaneously, little is known about the co-occurring and transitional nature of loneliness and depressive symptoms among migrant children, and the role of bullying victimization on their profiles and transitions. This study examined the profiles and transitions of loneliness and depressive symptoms among migrant children using latent profile analysis and latent transition analysis, as well as how bullying victimization predicted their profile memberships and transitions. A total of 692 migrant children (55.3% males, Mage = 9.41, SD = 0.55, range = 8 to 12 years old at T1) participated in both two waves of the study over six months. The results indicated that low profile (59.2%), moderate profile (22.0%), moderately high profile (14.3%), and high profile (4.5%) were identified at Time 1; low profile (69.4%), predominantly loneliness profile (16.8%), predominantly depressive symptoms profile (6.5%), and high profile (7.3%) were identified at Time 2. Migrant children in at-risk profiles displayed varying degrees of transition. Migrant children experiencing more bullying victimization were more likely to belong or transition to at-risk profiles. The findings highlight the importance of subgroup differences considerations in understanding the co-occurring and transitional nature of loneliness and depressive symptoms, as well as the predictive role of bullying victimization, informing effective strategies for prevention and intervention.

Community social capital, migration status, and Chinese rural children's psychosocial development.

Migration's impact on Chinese rural children's psychosocial development is the subject of growing research attention. While scholars highlight the critical role of social support, they have yet to systematically examine whether and how community social capital, which provides proximal social support for families, affects rural children's psychosocial development as well as whether such associations vary by children's migration status. Using data from the child component of the 2012 Chinese Urbanization and Labor Migration Survey, this article shows that community social capital reduces children's behavioral and emotional problems; however, left-behind children and migrant children gain less from community social capital than children with at-home parents. In addition, left-behind girls fare worse and gain less from community social capital than left-behind boys. Together, these findings imply that community social capital reinforces the disadvantaged psychosocial development of rural children who experience parental migration and evidence the enduring gender inequality in rural China.

How does parental emotion regulation influence Chinese migrant children's resilience? The chain mediating role of self-efficacy and hope.

To examine the chain mediating role of self-efficacy and hope in the relationship between parental emotion regulation and migrant children's resilience, the study investigated 745 migrant children (mean age = 12.9, SD = 1.5, 371 boys) from four schools and their parents in Guiyang City, Guizhou Province, China. All children were asked to complete the Adolescent Resilience Scale, the General Self-Efficacy Scale, and the Children's Hope Scale. Their parents completed the Parental Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling showed that parental emotion regulation could not only directly influence children's resilience but also indirectly influence it through two paths: the independent mediating role of self-efficacy and the chain mediating role of self-efficacy and hope. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how parental emotion regulation influences migrant children's resilience and provide important practical guidance for enhancing migrant children's resilience.

Health insurance status of cross-border migrant children and the associated factors: a study in a Thai-Myanmar border area.

BACKGROUND: Although policies of Thailand for migrant health protection are inclusive for all migrant groups, due to existing constraints in practices and policy implementation, many migrant children still lack the protection. This study aimed to assess the health insurance status of children aged 0-14 whose parents were cross-border migrant workers in Thailand, and factors related to the status. METHODS: A Thai-Myanmar border area, being developed as a 'special economic zone' by the Thai government, was selected as a study site. With a cross-sectional research design, the study collected primary data in late 2018 by a structured questionnaire from 402 migrant households that contained 803 children. The logistic generalized estimating equation (GEE) technique was applied to examine factors associated with the children's health insurance status. These included socio-economic factors, migration factors, and health insurance-related factors. RESULTS: It is found that 83.2% of the migrant children did not have health insurance. Factors associated with the health insurance status included age 12-14 years (Odds ratio (OR) 2.34; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.23-4.46), having a birth certificate (OR 1.89, 95% CI 1.04-3.45), and plan of the family in the future to remain the child in Thailand (OR 2.37, 95% CI 1.09-5.17). The primary carer's factors that were important health insurance-related factors included having no legal work permit (OR 4.12, 95% CI 1.88-9.06), having health insurance (OR 8.51, 95% CI 3.93-18.41), little or no ability to communicate in Thai (OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.14-0.66), and understanding the right of migrant children to purchase health insurance (OR 2.57, 95% CI 1.52-4.34). CONCLUSIONS: The findings point to the need for every migrant child to have a birth certificate, diminishing language barriers, and providing education and motivation about the need for health insurance for migrants and their accompanying dependents, especially children. For further studies, it is suggested to include migrant health insurance supply-side factors with qualitative analyses to understand how all the factors interactively determine the health insurance status of migrant children.

Relationship between parent-child attachment and depression among migrant children and left-behind children in China.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between parent-child attachment and depression in migrant children (MC), left-behind children (LBC) and non-left-behind children (NLBC) in China. STUDY DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional study. METHODS: In total, 4294 children (4th to 9th grade) participated in this study, including 677 MC, 1411 LBC and 2206 NLBC from 17 different schools. RESULTS: The results showed that (1) the prevalence of depression among MC (21.0%) and LBC (14.0%) was significantly higher than that among NLBC (10.8%); (2) the quality of parent-child attachment among MC was statistically significantly lower than among LBC and NLBC (the proportion of children whose father-child and mother-child attachments were both insecure was 55.4% among MC, 29.9% among LBC and 33.7% among NLBC); and (3) depression was affected by the interaction between the group of children and parent-child attachment; compared with NLBC whose parent-child attachments were both secure, the odds ratio of depression among MC whose parent-child attachments were both insecure was 7.39, which was significantly higher than LBC (5.34) and NLBC (4.86) whose parent-child attachments were both insecure. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of depression among MC and LBC was significantly higher than that among NLBC in China. The quality of parent-child attachment among MC was statistically significantly lower than that of LBC and NLBC. Secure attachment could reduce the risk of depression and insecure parent-child attachment increased the risk of depression. Depression was affected by the interaction between the group of children and parent-child attachment; migration was a significant risk factor associated with child depression.

Does mental health mediate the effect of deviant peer affiliation on school adaptation in migrant children: evidence from a nationally representative survey in China.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine the impact of deviant peer affiliation on migrant children's school adaptation in China and explore the mediating role of mental health in the relationship between deviant peer affiliation and school adaptation among migrant children. STUDY DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional study based on secondary data. METHODS: This study was based on the nationally representative China Education Panel Survey. Multiple linear regression models were used to quantify the relationship between deviant peer affiliation and school adaptation among 1,012 migrant children aged 12-17 years. Bootstrap test was used to evaluate the mediating effect of children's mental health. RESULTS: Deviant peer affiliation showed a significant negative impact on the school adaptation of migrant children (ß = -0.41, 95% confidence interval = -0.56 to -0.26). The relationship between deviant peer affiliation and school adaptation was partially mediated by children's mental health, resulting in an indirect effect of deviant peer affiliation on their school adaptation through their mental health (ß = -0.05, 95% confidence interval = -0.09 to -0.03). The mediating role of mental health could explain 11.4% of the relationship between deviant peer affiliation and school adaptation. CONCLUSIONS: Among migrant children, deviant peer affiliation showed unique effects on their school adaptation. Taking care of their mental health might help improve their school adaptation.

Public health nurses' encounters with undocumented migrant mothers and children.

OBJECTIVES: Undocumented migrant children (UMC) are often affected by policies and practices that do not take their best interests into account. The aim of this study was to describe how public health nurses (PHNs) experienced challenges and dilemmas in ensuring the best interests of the undocumented migrant child. DESIGN: This study had a qualitative descriptive design. SAMPLE: Focus group interviews and semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven PHNs in four different child health centers (CHCs). RESULTS: Qualitative content analysis was applied. Three main themes were identified: building trust, ensuring the best interests of the child, and dilemmas and challenges in ensuring the best interests of the child. The study revealed examples of immigration policy being prioritized over the best interests of the child. PHNs experienced frustration when the best interests of the child were not taken into account. Strategies for managing these conflicting demands were identified. CONCLUSION: Conflicting demands appeared when national immigration policies collided with fundamental human rights and ethical standards. Rules that exclude certain groups are incompatible with PHNs professional ethics.

An interdisciplinary framework examining culture and adaptation in migrant children and adolescents.

With increasing rates of globalization, understanding the cultural factors that promote positive adaptation in migrant children and adolescents is vital. In prior research, acculturation and enculturation frameworks often rely on unidimensional or bidimensional conceptions of culture to study the effects of migration on child and adolescent development. However, the contemporary strategies that migrant children and adolescents utilize to navigate multicultural contexts remain undertheorized. Therefore, we advance an interdisciplinary framework that describes the factors and processes that affect migrant child and adolescent development across four contexts: global, macrosystem, microsystem, and the individual level. Additionally, conceptualizations of cultural adaptation are broadened in our framework by examining the intersections of community cultural wealth, cultural preservation, and cultural restoration. We highlight the importance of prioritizing the culture and experiential knowledge of migrant children and adolescents in the development of policy, research, and practice, to support their positive adaptation in a globalized society.

The impact of family socioeconomic status and parenting styles on children's academic trajectories: A longitudinal study comparing migrant and urban children in China.

The positive development of migrant children in China is hampered due to their unequal accessibility to quality urban education resources. This research aimed at exploring the developmental trajectories of migrant and urban children's literacy and mathematics performance, as well as the impact of family socioeconomic status (SES) and parenting styles, including the mediating effect of parenting styles, by comparing migrant children with their urban counterparts. Growth mixture modeling identified distinguishable trajectories of mathematics development for migrant children (i.e., "falling behind" and "keeping pace" groups) and urban children (i.e., "catching up" and "keeping pace" groups), as well as distinguishable trajectories of literacy development for migrant children (i.e., "jumpstarting" and "keeping pace" groups) and urban children ("falling behind" and "steadily progressing" groups). Multinomial logistic regression analyses further clarified that authoritative parenting increased the likelihood of favorable trajectories of migrant children's mathematics development and urban children's literacy and mathematics development. Family SES enhanced migrant children's mathematics development. Family SES contributed to urban children's literacy development through authoritative parenting, yet such a mediating effect was not observed for migrant children. This study highlights the importance of focusing on distinct trajectories of migrant and urban children's literacy and mathematics in improving their school achievement.

A "Natural Death": The Political Battlefield of Infections and Migrant Children's Bodies.

Before September 2018, no child had died in United States Border Patrol custody in a decade. Since then, 7 detained children have died in the past 10 months. Migrant children's bodies have become the latest political battlefield, and these children have been caught in the crossfire. This piece focuses on the recent deaths of several migrant children from overwhelming infections in United States detainment centers. The circumstances surrounding these illnesses bring to the fore concerns about the care of these children, suggesting infectious disease outbreaks in these detainment centers, delays in bringing children to medical attention, and inadequate medical expertise in their care. There is an urgent need for advocacy by clinicians and professional societies to resolve this crisis.

Delayed diagnosis of congenital hypopituitarism associated with low socio-economic status and/or migration.

The clinical presentation of combined pituitary hormone deficiency (CPHD) is variable. Some patients present with hypoglycemia during the neonatal period or during the first few years of life. Others present later in childhood with growth failure. We report on 7 patients with very late diagnosed severe hypopituitarism with pituitary stalk interruption syndrome. Five out of the 7 patients had recently migrated to Belgium and the 2 other patients were from low socio-economic status families. All of them presented to our clinic for short stature and some also complained of lack of pubertal development. Four out of the 7 patients reached final height which was within their target height, despite very delayed treatment.Conclusion: We illustrate the overall good outcome of these children with delayed diagnosed severe hypopituitarism. Adverse life conditions and social deprivation are thought to be the cause of their late diagnosis. In the current global socio-politic context, pediatricians in high-income countries should stay aware that migration and poor socio-economic status can be associated with specific clinical presentations.What is Known:• The clinical presentation of combined pituitary hormone deficiency (CPHD) is variable. Some patients present with hypoglycemia during the neonatal period or during the first few years of life. Others present later in childhood with growth failure.• A few case reports are published with very late diagnosis of congenital hypopituitarism.What is New:• We report on the largest series of delayed diagnosis of congenital hypopituitarism and illustrate the survival of these children with overall good prognosis.• Migration and social deprivation are thought to be the main cause of this late diagnosis.

A computer-based Pinyin intervention for disadvantaged children in China: Effects on Pinyin skills, phonological awareness, and character reading.

Pinyin is an alphabetic script that denotes pronunciations of Chinese characters. Studies have shown that Pinyin instruction enhances both phonological awareness (e.g., Shu et al., Developmental Science, 2008, 11, 171-181) and character reading (e.g., Lin et al., Psychological Science, 2010, 21, 1117-1122) in Chinese children. In the present study, we provided a 3-week Pinyin intervention with a computer-based Pinyin GraphoGame to disadvantaged migrant children with poor Pinyin skills. A total of 252 first graders who were children of migrant workers in a large Chinese city were assessed to identify poor Pinyin readers. Fifty-six 7-year-old children with poor Pinyin skills were selected and randomly divided into a training group and a control group, with 28 children in each group. The training group played the Pinyin GraphoGame for 3 weeks, while the control group received school instruction only during the same period. Results showed that the children in the training group outperformed their peers in the control group on Pinyin reading accuracy and fluency, onset-rime and phonemic awareness, and character reading. These results suggest that the Pinyin GraphoGame may be a cost-effective method to enhance Pinyin and literacy outcomes for underprivileged children in China.

Migration status, emotional engagement, and social exclusion in Chinese schools.

INTRODUCTION: Since migration has become one of the pressing issues of our time, the school engagement of migrant children in the destination cities has drawn increasing scholarly attention. While most existing studies have focused on the cognitive and behavioral dimensions of school engagement of migrant children compared to local children, the emotional dimension has received less scholarly attention. Using a large-scale, national representative, school-level longitudinal survey data conducted in 2014 in China, this study examined the effect of migration status on children's emotional engagement in school. METHODS: This study was conducted with 15,872 Chinese junior high school students (mean age = 13.52, SD = 1.24) using ordered logistic regression. KHB mediation analysis was employed to explain migration-emotional engagement linkage. RESULTS: Compared with urban local children, both rural and urban migrant children are less likely to feel closely connected to their peers in school and are more likely to feel bored and to express escapism. The KHB mediation analysis further suggests that compared with the number of friends and proportions of the same-school friends, the percentages of local friends at the same school mediate most of the effect of migration status on all three measures of emotional engagement, particularly for rural migrant children. CONCLUSIONS: These findings revealed that although both social exclusion and the absence of friendship play statistically significant mediation roles, social exclusion is of vital importance in understanding the differences between migrant and local children in emotional engagement.

The disparity in caries and sealants between migrant and native children in Shanghai: A cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the disparity in dental caries between native and migrant children in Shanghai, China. METHODS: Between 2013 and 2015, a random cluster sample of native and migrant children aged 5, 9, 12 and 15 years was collected from each district in Shanghai. Oral examination was performed following the World Health Organization (WHO) method, and findings were reported as decayed-missing-filled teeth of primary dentition (dmft) and permanent dentition (DMFT). RESULTS: A total of 10 150 children were examined, and 33.6% of them were migrants. Migrant children had a higher prevalence of deciduous caries than native children (the 5-year-old age group, 67.8% vs 63.0%, P = 0.024; the 9-year-old age group, 75.9% vs 66.1%, P < 0.001), and higher dmft values were found in migrant children. But with respect to permanent teeth, no statistical differences were found between the two groups in caries prevalence or DMFT. After controlling for potential confounders by logistic regression, migrant children showed a higher risk of deciduous caries (odds ratio 1.42, 95% confidence interval 1.25-1.61, P < 0.001) but not of permanent caries. Migrant children exhibited relatively lower deciduous Restorative Care Index (RCI). However, 9- and 15-year-old migrant children had a higher permanent RCI than their native counterparts. CONCLUSIONS: Dental caries prevalence in migrant children was higher in the deciduous teeth but not in the permanent teeth compared to that in their native counterparts. School-based dental public health services may contribute to reducing the disparity in dental health status between migrant and native children.

Nutrition among children of migrant construction workers in Ahmedabad, India.

BACKGROUND: Millions of poor households in India undertake short duration rural to urban migration along with their children to find work in the informal economy in the city. While literature has documented the precarity of such temporary jobs, typically characterized by low wages, insecure jobs, harsh recruitment regimes and economic vulnerability, little is known about its implications for children who migrate with their parents to the city. In this study, we draw attention to children of migrant construction workers and focus on their overall nutritional well-being, which remains under-studied. Our objectives were to categorize the current nutritional status of children under the age of five and determine the underlying causes of poor nutritional outcomes. METHODS: The field work for this study was undertaken between May 2017 and January 2018 at five construction sites in the city of Ahmedabad. We undertook anthropometric measurements of children under the age of five [N = 131; (male: 46%, female 53%); (mean age: 31.7 months)] and categorized their nutritional status. Using the UNICEF framework on undernutrition, we examined the underlying causes of poor nutritional outcomes among this group of children with the help of qualitative methods such as interviews, focused group discussions and participant observation at the field sites. RESULTS: Undernutrition was highly prevalent among the children (N = 131): stunted (40.5%); wasted (22.1%); and underweight (50.4%). We found common factors across parents interviewed such as similar misperceptions of malnutrition, long hours of work and lack of childcare provision at the worksite which resulted in disrupted quality of care. While socio-cultural beliefs and lack of information influenced breastfeeding, other factors such as inability to take breaks or lack of space further impaired infant feeding practices more broadly. Lack of dietary diversity at home, poor hygiene and sanitation, and economic inability to seek healthcare further affected child nutritional status. CONCLUSIONS: Our study addresses a critical gap in migration literature in India by building a comprehensive narrative of migrant children's experiences at construction sites. We find that parents' informal work setting exposes children to a nutritionally challenging environment. Policies and programs seeking to address undernutrition, a critical challenge in India, must pay attention to the specific needs of migrant children.

Reduction but not elimination: health inequalities among urban, migrant, and rural children in China-the moderating effect of the fathers' education level.

BACKGROUND: Given the urban-rural structure and the increase in rural-to-urban migration, three types of children have emerged in contemporary China: rural, urban, and migrant children. Health disparities among these types of children have caused widespread concern, being the main contributor to health inequalities among children in China. The purpose of this study was to investigate health disparities among these children and the mechanisms underlining them. METHODS: This research applied multiple linear regression to data obtained from the Chinese Education Panel Survey (CEPS), a national representative survey of 7772 students from 2014 to 2015. Multiple linear regression with interactive terms was used to explore how gender and father's education moderate the degree of health inequalities among the children. 'Height for age Z-scores' (HAZ) was deployed as the indicator of the children's health status, with larger scores indicating better health status. RESULTS: The findings of the current study were threefold: First, this study found significant health disparities among the three types of children. Urban children are generally the healthiest (M = 1.064), followed by migrant children, (M = 0.779) and rural children (M = 0.612). Second, fathers' education significantly compensates for the heath disparities among the children. Fathers' education has a larger effect in compensating a rural-migrant difference (b = - 0.018, P < 0.05) than a rural-urban difference (b = - 0.016, P < 0.1). Third, the compensating effect of the fathers' education varies by gender. The compensating effect is larger for boys (b = 0.028, P < 0.001) than for girls (b = 0.025, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: This study found significant health inequalities among urban, migrant, and rural children, which might be shaped by the distinction of urban-rural structure and the process of rural-to-urban migration in contemporary China. Fathers' education also plays an important role in narrowing-but not eliminating-the health inequality between urban and rural children. Furthermore, the compensating effect of fathers' education is higher for boys than for girls, reflecting the patriarchal tradition in China. The currents study suggests that to promote the healthy growth of children, it is necessary to consider the health inequalities among different types of children when developing health-related policies. Factors like family socioeconomic status and gender may likewise play an important role in the implementation of policies.

A comparative study of unintentional injuries among schooling left-behind, migrant and residential children in China.

BACKGROUND: Children who suffer from parental migration have been manifested to exhibit physical and mental impairments at higher rates. This current study aims to explore unintentional injury disparity among schooling left-behind children, migrant children and residential children in China, and to examine the risk factors of unintentional injury among the three types of children based on a multi-level system framework. This study will fill the gaps of this topic for China and contribute to the world literature in the context of countries with frequent population migration. METHODS: Data for 4479 children aged 6-16 of a representative population sample were obtained from a survey conducted in China in 2017. Child's unintentional injury in this survey was measured based on the definition and classification of ICD-10. Descriptive analysis, multivariable logistic regression and zero-inflated negative binomial regression were employed in this study. RESULTS: Left-behind children showed higher prevalence of total unintentional injury than migrant and residential children, as well as in 14 specific unintentional injuries. There was a statistical difference between left-behind and residential children's unintentional injuries, but no significant difference was found between migrant and residential children. Results also indicated that both individual and environmental factors constructed as a multi-level system were associated with children's unintentional injuries. CONCLUSIONS: Family migration may have contributed to the increased unintentional injury risks among children. Left-behind children were more vulnerable to suffer from unintentional injuries than migrant and residential children, and specific attentions should be paid to unique group of children, especially the left-behind children. Given the importance and serious consequences of children's unintentional injuries, the findings may provide implications for necessary intervention.