Extracellular and intracellular small-molecule galectin-3 inhibitors.

Galectin-3 is a carbohydrate binding protein which has important roles in cancer and immunity. Potent galectin-3 inhibitors have been synthesized, for experimental purposes and potential clinical use. As galectin-3 is implicated in both intra- and extracellular activities, permeability of galectin-3 inhibitors is an important parameter determining biological effects. We compared the cellular uptake of galectin-3 inhibitors and their potency in the intracellular or extracellular space. The inhibitors differed in their polar surface area (PSA), but had similar affinities for galectin-3. Using a well-established permeability assay, we confirmed that the uptake was significantly higher for the inhibitor with the lowest PSA, as expected. To analyze intracellular activity of the inhibitors, we developed a novel assay based on galectin-3 accumulation around damaged intracellular vesicles. The results show striking differences between the inhibitors intracellular potency, correlating with their PSAs. To test extracellular activity of the inhibitors, we analyzed their potency to block binding of galectin-3 to cell surfaces. All inhibitors were equally able to block galectin-3 binding to cells and this was proportional to their affinity for galectin-3. These inhibitors may serve as useful tools in exploring biological roles of galectin-3 and may further our understanding of intracellular versus extracellular roles of galectin-3.

Galactoside-dependent proton transport by mutants of the Escherichia coli lactose carrier: substitution of tyrosine for histidine-322 and of leucine for serine-306.

The lac Y genes from two Escherichia coli mutants, MAB20 and AA22, have been cloned in a multicopy plasmid by a novel 'sucrose marker exchange' method. Characterization showed that the plasmids express a lactose carrier with poor affinity for lactose. Neither mutant carried out concentrative uptake with methyl beta-D-galactopyranoside, lactose, or melibiose as the substrate. Nor did the mutants catalyze counterflow or exchange with methyl beta-D-galactopyranoside. Both mutants did, however, retain the capacity to carry out facilitated diffusion with lactose or melibiose. DNA sequencing revealed that MAB20 (histidine-322 to tyrosine) and AA22 (serine-306 to leucine) have amino acid substitutions within the putative 'charge-relay' domain thought to be responsible for proton transport. Galactoside-dependent H+ transport was readily measured in both mutants. We conclude, therefore, that the presence of a histidine residue at position 322 of the lactose carrier is not obligatory for H+ transport per se.

Mutational analysis of the enzyme IIIGlc of the phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system in Escherichia coli.

The phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system (PTS) component EIIIGlc is responsible for transport and phosphorylation of glucose via EIIGlc. It also regulates the catabolism of other carbon sources, such as lactose and maltose, by modulating both the intracellular concentrations of the corresponding inducers and of cAMP. Mutational analysis of EIIIGlc was performed in order to identify crucial residues mediating the interactions between EIIIGlc and its target proteins. Such mutations were isolated by in vitro hydroxylamine mutagenesis of the cloned EIIIGlc gene, crr. Five mutated EIIIGlc impaired in the function of inducer exclusion were obtained. However, these mutations did not abolish the function of EIIIGlc in the transport and phosphorylation of glucose, nor in activation of adenylate cyclase. A single amino acid change was found for each mutation, which is located in a restricted area of the polypeptide chain: Gly47-->Ser47 for the HA2 and HA5 mutations, Ala76-->Thr76 for HA4 mutation and Ser78-->Phe78 for HA3 mutation, indicative of quaternary interactions between the corresponding region of EIIIGlc and its target protein(s).

The mechanism of action of chlorhexidine.

Chlorhexidine did not inhibit ATPase in intact cells of Escherichia coli K12 W1317i-, even at bactericidal concentrations, and ATP hydrolysis was greatest at the highest concentration (40 mg/l), even though no net uptake of substrate occurred. Like dinitrophenol and tribrominated salicylanilide, polymyxin and chlorhexidine collapsed the membrane potential at inhibitory concentrations. Membrane disruption, and not ATPase inactivation, is considered the lethal event in chlorhexidine action.

Intestinal transport of beta-thioglycosides by Na+/glucose cotransporter.

Intestinal metabolism and transport of p-nitrophenyl beta-D-thioglucoside (p-NPbetaSglc) and p-nitrophenyl beta-D-thiogalactoside (p-NPbetaSgal) by the Na+/glucose cotransporter were studied in excised small intestine of the rat. p-NPbetaSglc and p-NPbetaSgal were stable enough on the mucosal side to be transported to the serosal side. Transport of p-NPbetaSglc was inhibited in the presence of phloridzin (a Na+/glucose cotransporter inhibitor), glucose, or 3-O-methylglucose (3-OMG). p-NPbetaSglc transport was dependent on Na+ concentration in a sigmoidal manner. The activation energy for transport was 19.4 kcal mol(-1). The distribution of transport activity of p-NPbetaSglc in each region of the small intestine correlated well with that of 3-OMG. These results indicate that p-NPbetaSglc is transported by the Na+/glucose cotransporter in small intestine. The order of turnover rate for glycoside transport by Na+/glucose cotransporter was 3-OMG > p-nitrophenyl beta-O-glucoside > p-NPbetaSglc > p-NPbetaSgal, indicating that the presence of a galactose moiety and a sulphur between the monosaccharide moiety and aglycone decreases the turnover rate of the Na+/glucose cotransporter in the transport of glycosides. In an inhibition study using stable p-NPbetaSglc as a Na+/glucose cotransporter-transportable marker glucoside, it was also shown that the Na+/glucose cotransporter recognized several types of glycosides. In conclusion, displacement of the oxygen at carbon C-1 of glucose by sulphur in thioglycosides decreases the turnover rate of the Na+/glucose cotransporter, but thioglycosides are stable in the small intestine and are transported by the Na+/glucose cotransporter.

Targeting efficiency of galactosylated liposomes to hepatocytes in vivo: effect of lipid composition.

PURPOSE: To investigate the effects of the lipid composition of galactosylated liposomes on their targeted delivery to hepatocytes. METHODS: Several types of liposomes with a particle size of about 90 nm were prepared using distearoyl-L-phosphatidylcholine (DSPC), cholesterol (Chol) and cholesten-5-yloxy-N-(4-((1-imino-2-D- thiogalactosylethyl)amino)butyl)formamide (Gal-C4-Chol), and labeled with [3H]cholesterol hexadecyl ether. Their tissue disposition was investigated in mice following intravenous injection. The binding and internalization characteristics were also studied in HepG2 cells. RESULTS: Compared with [H]DSPC/Chol (60:40) liposomes, [3H]DSPC/Chol/Gal-C4-Chol (60:35:5) liposomes exhibit extensive hepatic uptake. Separation of the liver cells showed that galactosylated liposomes are preferentially taken up by hepatocytes, whereas those lacking Gal-C4-Chol distribute equally to hepatocytes and nonparenchymal cells (NPC). Increasing the molar ratio of DSPC to 90% resulted in enhanced NPC uptake of both liposomes, suggesting their uptake via a mechanism other than asialoglycoprotein receptors. DSPC Chol/Gal-C4-Chol (60:35:5) and DSPC/Chol/Gal-C4-Chol (90:5:5) liposomes exhibited similar binding to the surface of HepG2 cells, but the former were taken up faster by the cells. CONCLUSIONS: The recognition of galactosylated liposomes by the asialoglycoprotein receptors is dependent on the lipid composition. Cholesterol-rich galactosylated liposomes, exhibiting less non-specific interaction and greater receptor-mediated uptake, are better for targeting drugs to hepatocytes in vivo.

Targeting of lacZ reporter gene expression with radioiodine-labelled phenylethyl-beta- d-thiogalactopyranoside.

There has recently been increasing interest in the development of radioprobes that specifically target proteins transcribed from expression of reporter genes of interest. The purpose of this study was to develop a radioprobe that targets one of the most widely used reporter genes, the bacterial lacZ gene. We synthesised and purified radioiodine-labelled phenylethyl-beta- d-thiogalactopyranoside (PETG), a competitive inhibitor specific against Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase. We showed that [(125)I]iodo-PETG specifically binds to beta-galactosidase as verified by column chromatography and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis after incubation of radiotracer with the protein. We also showed through enzyme kinetic studies that iodo-PETG retains inhibitory action against beta-galactosidase activity. COS-7 cells infected with a recombinant adenovirus expressing the lacZ gene had viral titre-dependent enhancements in [(125)I]iodo-PETG uptake ( r(2)=0.897; P=0.001), which reached up to 642.5%+/-16.7% of control levels ( P<0.00001). Moreover, the level of uptake was highly correlated to luminescent measurements of beta-galactosidase activity ( r(2)=0.878; P<0.0001). These results confirm that radioiodine-labelled PETG specifically targets beta-galactosidase and that its uptake rates faithfully reflect levels of expression of the lacZ reporter gene. Further investigations were performed in nude mice bearing human neuroblastoma tumours transferred with the lacZ gene. Compared with control tumours, lacZ-expressing tumours were slightly better visualised on [(123)I]iodo-PETG images and had a modest increase in tumour to muscle count ratio (2.6+/-0.2 vs 1.9+/-0.1, P<0.05). The present results provide proof-of-principle for the potential of radiolabelled inhibitors as promising radiotracers to monitor lacZ gene expression levels. Future modifications to improve cell permeability should enhance in vivo contrast levels and may allow the use of radiolabelled beta-galactosidase inhibitors for non-invasive monitoring of lacZ gene expression.

Analysis of inducers of the E.coli lac repressor system in mammalian cells and whole animals.

Although the inducible prokaryotic lac repressor system has been successfully adapted for control of gene expression in mammalian cells, little information is available on the pharmacokinetics of beta-galactoside inducers in mammalian cells for optimizing this system. These studies directly measure the cell uptake and clearance in cultured cells and animal tissue cells of lac inducers. In these cells, the beta-galactosides, isopropyl beta-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG) and methyl beta-D-thiogalactoside (MTG), are rapidly taken up, exceeding extracellular levels in less than 2 hours. Greater than 5% of this inducer is found in the nuclear fraction, slightly exceeding the cytoplasmic concentration. Although similar in uptake, IPTG is cleared from the cultured cells significantly faster than MTG. In the mouse, the half-life of both inducers in the blood ranges from 15-30 minutes. HPLC analysis of tissue extracts from inducer-injected mice indicates that the inducer is metabolically stable and functionally able to bind to lac repressor. These results should permit improvement in the adaptation of the lac repressor system to mammalian cells and aid in the development of an adaptable system for gene control in transgenic animals.