Molecular Epidemiology of Western Equine Encephalitis Virus, South America, 2023-2024.

Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV) is a mosquitoborne virus that reemerged in December 2023 in Argentina and Uruguay, causing a major outbreak. We investigated the outbreak using epidemiologic, entomological, and genomic analyses, focusing on WEEV circulation near the Argentina‒Uruguay border in Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil. During November 2023‒April 2024, the outbreak in Argentina and Uruguay resulted in 217 human cases, 12 of which were fatal, and 2,548 equine cases. We determined cases on the basis of laboratory and clinical epidemiologic criteria. We characterized 3 fatal equine cases caused by a novel WEEV lineage identified through a nearly complete coding sequence analysis, which we propose as lineage C. Our findings highlight the importance of continued surveillance and equine vaccination to control future WEEV outbreaks in South America.

Population genomics of Fusarium graminearum isolates from the Americas.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a major disease of wheat and barley worldwide and is caused by different species in the genus Fusarium, Fusarium graminearum being the most important. We conducted population genomics analyses using SNPs obtained through genotyping by sequencing of over 500 isolates of F. graminearum from the US Upper Midwest, New York, Louisiana, and Uruguay. PCA and STRUCTURE analyses group our isolates into four previously described populations: NA1, NA2, Southern Louisiana (SLA) and Gulf Coast (GC). Some isolates were not assigned to populations because of mixed ancestry. Population structure was associated with toxin genotype and geographic origin. The NA1, NA2, and SLA populations are differentiated (FST 0.385 - 0.551) but the presence of admixed isolates indicates that the populations are not reproductively isolated. Patterns of linkage disequilibrium (LD) decay suggest frequent recombination within populations. Fusarium graminearum populations from the US have great evolutionary potential given the high recombination rate and a large proportion of admixed isolates. The NA1, NA2, and Southern Louisiana (SLA) populations separated from their common ancestral population roughly at the same time in the past and are evolving with moderate levels of subsequent gene flow between them. Genome-wide selection scans in all three populations revealed outlier regions with the strongest signatures of recent positive natural selection. These outlier regions include many genes with unknown function and some genes with known roles in plant-microbe interaction, fungicide/drug resistance, cellular transport and genes that are related to cellular organelles. Only a very small proportion of outlier regions are shared as outliers among the three populations, suggesting unique host-pathogen interactions and environmental adaptation.

Infection of South American coatis (Nasua nasua) with highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus displaying mammalian adaptive mutations.

Deadly outbreaks among poultry, wild birds, and carnivorous mammals by the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus of the clade 2.3.4.4b have been reported in South America. The increasing virus incidence in various mammal species poses a severe zoonotic and pandemic threat. In Uruguay, the clade 2.3.4.4b viruses were first detected in February 2023, affecting wild birds and backyard poultry. Three months after the first reported case in Uruguay, the disease affected a population of 23 coatis (Nasua) in an ecological park. Most animals became infected, likely directly or indirectly from wild birds in the park, and experienced sudden death. Five animals from the colony survived, and four of them developed antibodies. The genomes of the H5N1 strains infecting coatis belonged to the B3.2 genotype of the clade 2.3.4.4b. Genomes from coatis were closely associated with those infecting backyard poultry, but transmission likely occurred through wild birds. Notable, two genomes have a 627K substitution in the RNA polymerase PB2 subunit, a hallmark amino acid linked to mammalian adaptation. Our findings support the ability of the avian influenza virus of the 2.3.4.4b clade to infect and transmit among terrestrial mammals with high pathogenicity and undergo rapid adaptive changes. It also highlights the coatis' ability to develop immunity and naturally clear the infection.

Adolescent health-risk behaviours in Uruguay: Patterns from national cross-sectional school surveys conducted in 2006, 2012 and 2019.

BACKGROUND: There are no trend studies on various health risk behaviours among adolescents in Uruguay. Therefore, this study looked at trends in a number of health-risky behaviours among adolescents in Uruguay from three separate surveys. METHODS: Data from 9272 adolescents (age range: 11-16 years), who took part in three cross-sectional national in-school surveys in Uruguay in 2006, 2012 and 2019 were analysed. A self-administered survey was used to evaluate 24 health risk behaviours. By using logistic regression analyses to treat the study year as a categorical variable and adjusting food insecurity and age, linear trends were examined. RESULTS: We found a significant increase in the prevalence of being overweight, having obesity, inadequate fruit intake, sedentary behaviour in leisure-time, physical inactivity, bullying victimisation, loneliness, suicidal ideation, and sexual activity. We found a significant decrease in current cigarette use, physical fighting and current alcohol use. Among males, a significant increase of non-condom use, and a decrease in current other tobacco use (other than cigarettes), being physically attacked and the number of sexual partners. Among females, we found an increase in food insecurity, trouble from alcohol use, multiple sexual partners, and sleep problems. CONCLUSION: Overall, from 2006 to 2019, there was a decrease in seven health risk behaviours among boys and/or girls. Among boys, there was an increase in 10 health risk behaviours and among girls, 15 health risk behaviours increased, highlighting adolescent girls' greater vulnerability, thereby perpetuating further gendered health inequalities. In Uruguay, school health programmes for adolescents are recommended.

Plasma Interleukin-13 Levels Correlate With the Severity of Symptoms Induced by Functional Dyspepsia.

OBJECTIVE: Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a gastrointestinal functional disorder of the upper gastrointestinal tract that affects the quality of life of patients and poses a significant economic burden. It has been proposed that the local inflammatory immune response at the duodenum is associated with an increase in intestinal permeability, favoring the recruitment of Th2 cells and granulocyte degranulation. Moreover, systemic immune response could also be related to the symptoms of FD. The objective of this study was to evaluate the systemic immune response in Uruguayan patients with FD by analyzing the cytokine levels in plasma and the frequency of circulating T cells associated with duodenal recruitment. PATIENTS AND METHODS: An analytic and cross-sectional study in 30 patients with FD and 15 healthy controls (HCs) was carried out. Patients were diagnosed with FD according to the Roma IV Committee definition. Cytokine levels were measured in plasma by a specific assay. Expression of α4ß7 and CC chemokine receptor9 in circulating T cells was evaluated by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Higher levels of interleukin (IL)-5, IL-13, and IL-8 and lower levels of IL-10 and IL-12p70 were detected in patients with FD than in HC. Furthermore, a positive linear correlation between IL-13 and the severity of FD symptoms was found. CD4 + T cells from patients with FD expressed higher levels of α4ß7 and CC chemokine receptor9 than those from HC. CONCLUSIONS: An increase of Th2-like cytokines and a positive correlation between the levels of plasma IL-13 and the severity of symptoms in patients with FD from Uruguay were detected.

Follow up study of symptomatic human cystic echinococcosis treatment with albendazole and praziquantel, in Uruguay.

BACKGROUND: Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a chronic disease considered a neglected one. Cystic echinococcosis is endemic in Uruguay and the region. Surgery, using various technical approaches, has the potential to safely remove the cyst(s) and lead to a complete cure in a high number of patients with simple forms of CE. However, surgery may be impractical in patients with multiple cysts in several organs, high surgical risk, or in patients with previous multiple surgeries. In these cases, the pharmacological treatment with the benzimidazolic drug Albendazole (ABZ) alone or combined with Praziquantel (PZQ), has been promising as the best choice to achieve improvement or cure. METHODS: In this study, we analyze the results obtained on the anti-parasitic treatment of 43 patients diagnosed with CE between the years 2003 and 2020. Patients were treated before and/or after surgery with ABZ or the combination ABZ/PZQ. The standardize protocol of the anti-parasitic drug treatment before surgery was 7 days, 15 days or 1 month depending on the urgency and availability of the surgical procedure. All cases that involved confirmed locations on lungs underwent immediate surgery with minimal pre-treatment when possible. After surgery, the standardize protocol of anti-parasitic drug treatment consisted of six cycles of 30 days each and resting intervals of 15 days in between. ABZ was used in all cases, administered orally, twice daily, at a total dosage of 15 mg/kg/day, with food high in fat content for improved absorption. The follow up was carried out according to WHO-IWGE guidelines for 5 years. RESULTS: Of the 43 patients fourteen were ≤ 15 years of age and had a differentiated pre-surgical treatment. From the ≥ 16 years of age, 36 completed the treatments and the 5 years follow up. Four patients changed geographical locations, without a forwarding contact, after the post-surgery treatment. No patient died during the study. Of the 36 patients that completed the study, 32 were treated only with ABZ; 93.75% achieved treatment success as determined by improvement or cure, and 6.25% treatment failure determined by no change or worsening. The last four patients received the ABZ/PZQ combination therapy and achieved 100% treatment success. CONCLUSION: The pharmacological treatment resulted in a good option not only as palliative but also as potentially curative. The main relevance of its use was in cases with previous multiple surgeries or surgeries with potential life-threatening complications due to the number and location of cysts and concurrent comorbidities. A follow-up of at least 5 years would be recommended to assure remission and control of the transmission. More randomized trials are needed to provide clear clinical evidence of different pharmacological treatments for CE.

Nudging healthy food choices through e-messages in a supermarket.

This paper analyses the impact of a healthy food nudge intervention on purchases of 1590 customers of a supermarket chain's loyalty program in Uruguay through a randomized controlled trial. Nudges were presented in the form of messages sent through WhatsApp to customers three times a week for 8 weeks (between July and September 2020). Messages highlighted the benefits of cooking at home and eating mindfully and healthy (vegetables, fruits, healthy snacks, legumes, and fish), and included easy to implement tips. Results show that, on average, customers assigned to the treatment group increased their purchases of healthy food by 8% and substituted sugar-sweetened for sugar-free beverages. We find an unintended increase in purchases of unhealthy food of 7%, with no correlative increase in calories, suggesting that customers substituted higher calorie products for lower calorie ones. We find that households with lower educational attainment, lower income, and with children under the age of 12 are more likely to increase purchases of fruits and vegetables, while other households are more likely to improve the diet quality without increasing expenditure. Effects do not persist after the intervention is over, suggesting that salience, rather than information is the main channel triggering the effects.

Sphaerotilus uruguayifluvii sp. nov., a novel filamentous bacterium isolated from river water.

Strain C29T, a Gram-staining-negative, straight rod occurring singly, in pairs or short chains, was isolated from floating filamentous biomass of the Uruguay River. The strain was catalase and oxidase positive, chemoorganotrophic, strictly aerobic, non-motile, and grew at pH 6.0-9.0, 15-45 °C, and 0-0.5% (w/v) NaCl. Polyhydroxybutyrate was accumulated in nutrient-limited conditions. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene revealed that strain C29T had the highest sequence similarity with Leptothrix discophora SS-1T (97.82%), Ideonella livida TBM-1T (97.82%), Vitreoscilla filiformis L1401-2T (97.52%), Sphaerotilus sulfidivorans D-501T (97.50%) and Sphaerotilus natans DSM 6575T (97.46%). Other type strains with validly published names had similarities below 97.46%. Further phylogenomic analysis showed that strain C29T was affiliated to the family Sphaerotilaceae. Average nucleotide identity (ANI) and in silico DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) values with its phylogenetic relatives were lower than 91 and 41%, respectively, revealing that strain C29T represented a new species. The DNA G + C content of strain C29T was 70.9%. The annotation of the genome of the novel strain shows it possessed genes for the degradation of aromatic compounds. It also contained genes that encode sigma factors involved in response regulation of stress resistance, which is an important function for adaptation and survival in natural niches. Based on the results of the phylogenetic and phenotypic analyses, we propose that strain C29T represents a novel species, for which the name Sphaerotilus uruguayifluvii sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is C29T (= CCM 9043T = DSM 113250T).

Genomic analysis of inbreeding level, kinship and breed relationships in Creole cattle from South America.

The conservation of animal genetic resources refers to measures taken to prevent the loss of genetic diversity in livestock populations, including the protection of breeds from extinction. Creole cattle populations have suffered a drastic reduction in recent decades owing to absorbent crosses or replacement with commercial breeds of European or Indian origin. Genetic characterization can serve as a source of information for conservation strategies to maintain genetic variation. The objective of this work was to evaluate the levels of inbreeding and kinship through the use of genomic information. A total of 903 DNAs from 13 cattle populations from Argentina, Bolivia and Uruguay were genotyped using an SNP panel of 48 K. Also, a dataset of 76 K SNPs from Peruvian Creole was included. Two inbreeding indices (FROH and Fhat2) and kinship relationships were calculated. In addition, effective population size (Ne), linkage disequilibrium, population composition and phylogenetic relationships were estimated. In Creole cattle, FROH ranged from 0.14 to 0.03, and Fhat2 was close to zero. The inferred Ne trends exhibited a decline toward the present for all populations, whereas Creole cattle presented a lower magnitude of Ne than foreign breeds. Cluster analysis clearly differentiated the taurine and Zebu components (K2) and showed that Bolivian Creole cattle presented Zebu gene introgression. Despite the population reduction, Creole populations did not present extreme values of consanguinity and kinship and maintain high levels of genetic diversity. The information obtained in this work may be useful for planning conservation programmes for these valuable local animal genetic resources.

Coping strategies of food insecure households with children and adolescents in Uruguay, a high-income Latin American country: A qualitative study through the lens of Bourdieu's theories of capitals and practice.

Food insecurity has been associated with negative short, medium, and long-term health consequences, which are more detrimental for children and adolescents. These effects may depend on the coping strategies developed to deal with food shortages. The present research aimed at exploring coping strategies in food insecure households with children and adolescents in Uruguay, incorporating sociological theoretical insights from Bourdieu. A qualitative approach based on individual semi-structured interviews was used. A total of 40 interviews were conducted with adults who had parental responsibilities of children and adolescents and who received different types of food assistance, between July and December 2022, in four cities. Results showed that adults tend to develop a wide range of coping strategies aimed at: reducing food expenditure, increasing the availability of money for purchasing food, increasing food availability and/or rationing the food available in the household. Some of the strategies were implemented regardless of the severity of food insecurity, whereas others were characteristic of the moderate and severe levels of the construct. Evidence to support the mediation effect of coping strategies on health outcomes was found. Discourses suggested that lower accumulation of economic and cultural capital may be aligned with the adoption of less socially accepted mechanisms to access to food. Expressions of a specific habitus aimed at securing food were identified among participants with more deprivations. Taken together, the findings suggest that coping strategies may not be a universal or invariant sequence according to the severity of food insecurity and stress the importance of considering households' resources and local context for the development of strategies to improve access to food.

Screening for White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) in pink shrimp (Penaeus paulensis) from Rocha Lagoon, Uruguay.

Penaeus paulensis (pink shrimp) is an important resource for small-scale fisheries in the brackish coastal lagoons of Uruguay. No viral diseases have been detected in shrimp populations in the Uruguayan territory. The presence of viral pathogens, such as White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Infectious Hypodermal Haematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHHNV) in wild shrimp populations has been previously reported in Brazil and Argentina. We investigated the presence of WSSV in wild populations of penaeid shrimp from Rocha Lagoon, Uruguay. We sampled 70 specimens of juvenile P. paulensis and assessed the presence of these viral pathogens using nested PCR and histology. Gill tissue from the 70 samples was divided into 14 pools of 5 individuals for DNA extraction and PCR analysis. We also retested each pooled sample individually. The nested PCR procedure described in the WOAH aquatic animal manual was used. A subset of 20 individual specimens were also processed using standard histological techniques. The results showed that WSSV was not detected in the pooled or individually tested samples. We found no evidence of the presence of the viral genome or gill lesions in the samples analysed. This indicates that the fishery is still likely to be free of WSSV infection. The procedures and information generated can be used as a baseline study for future implementation of surveillance programmes in the country.

Widespread occurrence of the amphibian chytrid panzootic lineage in Uruguay is constrained by climate.

The amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) causes chytridiomycosis, a disease among the main causes of amphibian declines worldwide. However, Bd studies on Neotropical amphibians from temperate areas are scarce. We present a comprehensive survey of Bd in Uruguay, in temperate central eastern South America, carried out between 2006 and 2014. Skin swabs of 535 specimens of 21 native and exotic frogs were tested by PCR. We used individual-level data to examine the relationship between infection, climatic variables, and their effects on body condition and the number of prey items found in stomach contents. Infection was widespread in free-ranging anurans with an overall prevalence of 41.9%, detected in 15 native species, wild American bullfrogs Aquarana catesbeiana, and captive specimens of Ceratophrys ornata and Xenopus laevis. Three haplotypes of the Bd ITS region were identified in native amphibians, all belonging to the global panzootic lineage (BdGPL), of which only one was present in exotic hosts. Despite high infection frequencies in different anurans, we found no evidence of morbidity or mortality attributable to chytridiomycosis, and we observed no discernible impact on body condition or consumed prey. Climatic conditions at the time of our surveys suggested that the chance of infection is associated with monthly mean temperature, mean humidity, and total precipitation. Temperatures below 21°C combined with moderate humidity and pronounced rainfall may increase the likelihood of infection. Multiple haplotypes of BdGPL combined with high frequencies of infection suggest an enzootic pattern in native species, underscoring the need for continued monitoring.

Setting up a biomodeling, virtual planning, and three-dimensional printing service in Uruguay.

Virtual surgical planning and three-dimensional (D) printing are rapidly becoming essential for challenging and complex surgeries around the world. An Ibero-American survey reported a lack of awareness of technology benefits and scarce financial resources as the two main barriers to widespread adoption of 3-D technologies. The Pereira Rossell Hospital Center is a publicly funded maternal and pediatric academic clinical center in Uruguay, a low-resource Latin American country, that successfully created and has been running a 3-D unit for 4 years. The present work is a step-by-step review of the 3-D technology implementation process in a hospital with minimal financial investment. References to training, software, hardware, and the management of human resources are included. Difficulties throughout the process and future challenges are also discussed.

Modeling missing pedigree with metafounders and validating single-step genomic predictions in a small dairy cattle population with a great influence of foreign genetics.

Genetic improvement in small countries rely heavily on foreign genetics. In an importing country such as Uruguay, consideration of unknown parent groups (UPG) for foreign sires is essential. However, the use of UPG in genomic model evaluations may lead to bias in genomic estimated breeding values (GEBV). The objective of this study was to study different models including UPG or metafounders (MF) in the Uruguayan Holstein evaluation and to analyze bias, dispersion, and accuracy of GEBV predictions in BLUP and single-step genomic BLUP (ssGBLUP). A gamma matrix (Γ) was estimated either by using base allele population frequencies obtained by bounded linear regression (MFbounded), or by using 2 values to design Γ (i.e., a single value for the diagonal and a different value for the off-diagonal [MFrobust]). Both Γ estimators performed well in terms of GEBV predictions, but MFbounded was the best option. There is, however, some bias whose origin was not completely understood. UPG or MF seem to model correctly genetic progress for unknown parents except for the very first groups (earlier time period). As for validation bulls, bias was observed across all models, whereas for validation cows it was only observed with UPG in BLUP. Overdispersion was found in all models, but it was mostly detected in validation bulls. Ratio of accuracies indicated that ssGBLUP gave better predictions than BLUP.

Metabolic and behavioural risk factors for cardiovascular diseases in Southern Latin America: analysis of the Global Burden of Disease 1990-2019.

OBJECTIVES: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading causes of global mortality. Modifiable behavioural and metabolic risk factors significantly contribute to the burden of CVD. Given the vast socio-demographic and health outcome heterogeneity in Latin America, similar southern Latin American countries (Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay) were analysed as a distinct group to describe the CVD death rates related to metabolic and behavioural risk factors. STUDY DESIGN: An ecological study was performed using data from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. METHODS: Metabolic and behavioural risk factors-related CVD death were examined by analysing age-standardised rates per 100,000 individuals in the three countries between 1990 and 2019. RESULTS: While exposure to behavioural risk is decreasing, an upwards trend was observed in metabolic risks. Among the assessed risk factors, metabolic factors emerged as the primary contributors to deaths. High fasting plasma glucose exhibited a remarkable increase in relative importance across most studied contexts. Dietary risks stood out among behavioural factors due to their complexity and substantial changes observed. Although mortality rates have declined for overall CVD, peripheral artery disease mortality is rising. CONCLUSION: Modifiable behavioural and metabolic risk factors significantly influence CVD mortality in Southern Latin America. Despite the increasing exposure to metabolic risks, advancements in prevention and treatment are evidenced in the decline of mortality rates for most CVD. These findings emphasise the need for targeted interventions and comprehensive strategies to address their impact on cardiovascular health, advocating for healthy lifestyle behaviours to mitigate the progression and CVD development.

New Races with Wider Virulence Indicate Rapid Evolution of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici in the Southern Cone of America.

Wheat yellow (stripe) rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), is one of the most devastating diseases of wheat worldwide. Pst populations are composed of multiple genetic groups, each carrying one or more races characterized by different avirulence/virulence combinations. Since the severe epidemics in 2017, yellow rust has become the most economically important wheat foliar disease in Uruguay. A set of 124 Pst isolates collected from wheat fields in Uruguay between 2017 and 2021 were characterized phenotypically, and 27 of those isolates were subsequently investigated in-depth by additional molecular genotyping and race phenotyping analyses. Three genetic groups were identified, PstS7, PstS10, and PstS13, with the latter being the most prevalent. Two races previously reported in Europe, Warrior (PstS7) and Benchmark (PstS10), were detected in four and two isolates, respectively. A third race, known as Triticale2015 (PstS13), that was first detected in Europe in 2015 and in Argentina in 2017 was detected at several locations. Additional virulence to Yr3, Yr17, Yr25, Yr27, or Yr32 was detected in three new race variants within PstS13. The identification of these new races, which have not been reported outside South America, provides strong evidence of the local evolution of virulence in Pst during the recent epidemic years.

Real-world implementation of North American and SIOP strategies for the treatment of Wilms tumor in Uruguay.

Wilms tumor has been selected as an index tumor by the WHO Global Initiative for Childhood Cancer with the aim to improve cure rates worldwide. Nevertheless, there is a scarcity of published data on outcomes beyond those of the major cooperative groups. Therefore, we conducted a retrospective analysis including all patients with Wilms tumor treated at our referral center in Uruguay between 1995 and 2020. Treatment consisted of North American (NA) strategies in 23 cases (1995-2004), followed by the SIOP strategy in 35 cases thereafter. Staging included: I-II = 28, III = 7, IV = 14, and V = 9. There were no major surgical or medical complications; however, a delay in the administration of local radiotherapy was observed (median of 21 days after surgery). There were no cases of toxicity- or surgery-related deaths or treatment abandonment. Five-year probability of overall survival was 0.72 and 0.92 for the NA and SIOP groups, respectively. We conclude that outcomes were better for the SIOP strategy with no unexpected toxicities and high treatment compliance in both strategies. Timely implementation of radiotherapy was challenging.

Supplementary description and ontogenetic variability of Coryphaenoides affinis: rediscovery of the species after 145 years since its original description (Teleostei: Gadiformes: Macrouridae).

A large adult (138 mm head length) of the grenadier genus Coryphaenoides is described. It is identified as C. affinis hitherto known only from two juvenile type specimens collected by HMS Challenger off Uruguay in 1876. The diagnosis of the species is revised to include the discovery of considerable ontogenetic changes in squamation. Spinulation on the body scales are reduced or lost with size, while the armament of the head scales become amplified. The larger of the syntype specimens is designated as the lectotype. All three known specimens of C. affinis were collected in the southwestern Atlantic at depths between 3500 and 4000 m. A key for identification for the species of the subgenus Nematonurus is provided.

Institutional Management Competence for Addressing Illegal Wildlife Trade: Insights from Uruguay.

The illegal wildlife trade (IWT) is a global phenomenon that adversely affects biodiversity and human well-being. Understanding how institutions manage this trade is crucial for reducing its negative impacts. Latin America has the fewest IWT studies globally; thus, science in support of more effective institutional management of IWT is limited. This study aims to bridge the researcher-practitioner gap by providing applicable results and involving control institutions. To this end, we examine the strengths and weaknesses of Uruguay's institutions in addressing this issue, introducing the concept of institutional management competence to the knowledge base about IWT. Based on this case study, we aimed to generate inputs to guide policymakers in achieving better control of the IWT, contributing to reduce the researcher-practitioner gap. From an interdisciplinary perspective that articulates qualitative and quantitative methods, the study presents the following results: (a) Uruguay's network for addressing illegal wildlife trade involves numerous institutions whose articulation has a high degree of informality; (b) these institutions address different stages of trafficking based on their roles, jurisdiction, and engagement; (c) main weaknesses include insufficient state-level prioritisation, weak institutional coordination, inadequate training, insufficient infrastructure, space and personnel to handle the volume of seized animals, lack of proper facilities for seized animals, and a need for better-organised information. Our results help shed light on the IWT management structures in Uruguay and identifies where direct improvements can be made to strengthen the institutional responses to global IWT.