Does the Size-Arrival Effect Occur With an Active Collision-Avoidance Task in an Immersive 3D Virtual Reality Environment?

OBJECTIVE: Determine whether the size-arrival effect (SAE) occurs with immersive, 3D visual experiences and active collision-avoidance responses. BACKGROUND: When a small near object and a large far object approach the observer at the same speeds, the large object appears to arrive before the small object, known as the size-arrival effect (SAE), which may contribute to crashes between motorcycles and cars. Prior studies of the SAE were limited because they used two dimensional displays and asked participants to make passive judgments. METHOD: Participants viewed approaching objects using a virtual reality (VR) headset. In an active task, participants ducked before the object hit them. In a passive prediction-motion (PM) judgment, the approaching object disappeared, and participants pressed a button when they thought the object would hit them. In a passive relative TTC judgment, participants reported which of two approaching objects would reach them first. RESULTS: The SAE occurred with the PM and relative TTC tasks but not with the ducking task. The SAE can occur in immersive 3D environments but is limited by the nature of the task and display. APPLICATION: Certain traffic situations may be more prone to the SAE and have higher risk for collisions. For example, in left-turn scenarios (e.g., see Levulis, 2018), drivers make passive judgments when oncoming vehicles are far and optical expansion is slow, and binocular disparity putatively is ineffective. Collision-avoidance warning systems may be needed more in such scenarios than when vehicles are near and drivers' judgments of TTC may be more accurate (DeLucia, 2008).