Exploring characteristics of and transitions between mental states within the Multi-Action Plan model in high-level judo.

The Multi-Action Plan (MAP) model presents an idiosyncratic framework for human performance. MAP research has categorised four Performance Types (PTs; T1-T4) using self-paced activities. Specifically, T1-4 present four distinct mental states experienced by athletes during performance, differing, among other aspects, in the level of effort and perceived control. However, transitions between PTs are yet to be empirically investigated. This study aimed to examine MAP in the hyperdynamic open-skill combat context of judo. We explored how judoka experienced PTs and the transition processes between these mental states. Six British, high-level judoka (n = 6; Mdnage = 19) were interviewed using a retrospective semi-structured interview schedule. Interpretative phenomenological analysis indicated that judo presents a hyperdynamic difficult-to-predict performance context due to the opponent and fighting rhythm. Second, participants strongly related to T2 and T3 and less to T1 and T4. They also reported experiences 'between' T2 and T3. Lastly, participants reported common transition pathways (e.g., T2-T3), typical transition cues, and specific trainable strategies to optimise performance. Findings are discussed in relation to existing literature. Lastly, we present limitations, applied, and research considerations.

IOC Olympian Health Cohort: a study protocol for a 15-year, prospective, Olympian health study across Summer and Winter Olympic sports.

Prevention of sports injury and illness and protection of athlete health are key mandates of the IOC. Methodological limitations in Olympic Games surveillance and retired Olympian studies mean there are gaps in the available evidence on Olympian health and the varied challenges occurring at different stages throughout an athlete's career. This (protocol) paper describes the methods for implementation of the IOC Olympian Health Cohort. The study aims to establish a longitudinal cohort of current Olympians and follow them prospectively (around 15 years) throughout their Olympic careers and retirement. The study will use participants who have completed self-report questionnaires. Olympians will be recruited after each Summer and Winter Olympic Games, and all National Olympic Committee (NOC) athletes aged 16 years or older are eligible. The first phase included the Tokyo 2020/2021 and Beijing 2022 Olympians, with the study promoted via IOC platforms, Athlete365 and NOCs. Questionnaires include baseline demographics, sports exposure and history of injuries and illnesses impacting the athlete's ability to continue to train and/or compete for at least 2 weeks. Questions also address retirement from sports, musculoskeletal, mental and general health, and quality of life measures. This protocol describes the methods for the 15-year global IOC Olympian Health Cohort Study, from participant recruitment to the development and distribution of the study questionnaire. This protocol will be updated to report future changes in the study's conduct or questionnaire content. These data will help identify risk factors and inform risk-reduction strategies. The ultimate goal is to protect the health of all athletes during their careers and retirement.

The measurement, tracking and development practices of English professional football academies.

Tracking and measuring elements of performance is a well-established feature of practice in football academies. Player characteristics are considered, tracked, and measured using a variety of methods, with curricula often devised based on perceived importance and data interpretation. Against this breadth, our aim was to investigate the policies and systems in place at category one and two English football academies. Specifically, our objectives were (a) to understand what factors academies believe are important in the development of their players, (b) explore what academies are tracking and how they measure performance, and (c) analyse the extent to which these factors are integrated into the player's curricula. A total of 15 participants with over 10 years' experience across 40 Talent Development (TD) environments were recruited to participate in semi-structured interviews. Using Reflexive Thematic Analysis (RTA), generated themes suggest that academies perceive a differential weighting between performance factors, with greatest importance placed on technical, tactical and psychological factors. A lack of clear measurement systematisation was often apparent. Finally, we identified methods of player curricula integration. We conclude by offering implications for academies to optimise integration of systems and processes that measure and track their players development.

A one-year follow-up of the cognitive and psycho-behavioural skills in artistic gymnastics.

A good set of cognitive and psycho-behavioural skills are beneficial for young athletes to overcome and benefit from developmental challenges. Unfortunately, there is still a dearth of knowledge on how both these cognitive (i.e., executive functions; EF) and psycho-behavioural (i.e., psychological characteristics of developing excellence; PCDE) skills develop in youth athletes. Especially for athletes in early specialisation sports such as artistic gymnastics, the early EF and PCDE development might be important to be able to cope with the pressure and challenges that comes with a transition to the next stage. In the current study, artistic gymnasts between 9 and 22 years old were tested twice with a 12-month interval to investigate the changes in EF and PCDE. Results showed that EF developed within the youngest stage, but plateaued at the later stages. Most PCDE did not seem to change over time within each stage. Furthermore, the transition to a new stage does not seem to coincide with an increased improvement of PCDE. However, with a case study approach in the oldest stages, still inter-individual differences in EF and PCDE scores over time were observed. This study shows that EF and PCDE develop over time, albeit in a non-linear way, and along a variety of developmental trajectories.

Teamwork makes the dream work: Testing for shared perceptions on psycho-behavioural skills between athletes, coaches and parents.

Psycho-behavioural skills play a key role in optimising progression through talent development, and this study investigated to what extent athlete's self-perceptions align with those of their coaches and parents. Firstly, we examined if levels of alignment between these three raters differ across age of the athlete. To this end, 122 athletes between 9 and 18 years old (12.17 ± 2.41 years old; 47 gymnasts, 13 cyclists and 62 badminton players) completed a psycho-behavioural questionnaire. The ANOVA's indicated low levels of correspondence between the ratings of the athlete, the coach and the parents during childhood, while better levels of shared perceptions were found in adolescence. Secondly, we investigated to what extent coaches and parents believed their own perception of the athlete's and the perception of the athlete's psycho-behavioural skills were accurate. Parents appeared to be more confident in accurately perceiving the psycho-behavioural skills of the athlete than coaches. Parents and coaches also believed that older athletes would be more honest on their psycho-behavioural shortcomings than younger athletes. Altogether, these findings highlight that athletes and other stakeholders in the talent development environment should strive for better alignment in perceptions on psycho-behavioural skills during the talent development pathway. With better integrated perceptions, a more functional and efficient talent development system for the athlete targeting the psycho-behavioural skills can be created.

Call for the application of a biopsychosocial and interdisciplinary approach to the return-to-sport framework of snow sports athletes.

Snow sports such as alpine skiing or snowboarding are associated with a high risk of injury and reinjury and are subject to a very special environment with specific rehabilitation challenges that must be addressed. Due to geographic decentralisation, seasonal climatic limitations, alternation of training in off-snow and on-snow settings and unique loading patterns of practising these sports, special rehabilitation structures and processes are required compared with other sports. In addition, returning to preinjury performance requires a high level of confidence and a resumption of risk-taking in demanding situations such as high-speed skiing and high-amplitude jumps. A biopsychosocial and interdisciplinary approach can be viewed as a holistic, athlete-centred approach that promotes interprofessional communication and collaboration. This is particularly central for managing the physical/biological, psychological and social demands of injury management for snow sports. It can help ensure that rehabilitation content is well coordinated and tailored to individual needs. This is because transitions between different rehabilitation phases and caring professionals are well aligned, and rehabilitation is understood not only as purely 'physical recovery' but also as 'psychological recovery' considering the snow sports-specific setting with specific social norms. Ultimately, this may improve the rehabilitation success of snow sports athletes.

Shooter ready? Integrating mental skills training in an advanced sniper course.

Performance psychology has increased in usage and popularity; however, we contend that within the elite spheres of the military, there is a need for research and development to fit the context and environment. In this study, we describe an explorative case study on the integration of mental skill training techniques to an advanced sniper course in the Norwegian Armed Forces. We evaluate the impact through triangulation and examine results on the course, perceptions of the participants, and observations from the instructors. In addition, we conducted a 1-year follow-up to get participants' experience of translating the skills beyond the course. The results show that the mental skill training package influenced both results and performance in a positive manner; however, as a novel field, further research is warranted to establish a best practice to enhance performance for elite military forces.

"Getting on the same page" enhancing team performance with shared mental models-case studies of evidence informed practice in elite sport.

Within high performing, team invasion sports, collective decision making and coordination between teammates are essential characteristics. There is a wealth of evidence supportive of shared mental models as being an important construct to underpin team coordination. Yet, to this point, there is limited research considering the coaches' voices in the application of shared mental models in high performance sport, nor the challenges coaches face throughout the process. Given these limitations, we provide two case studies of evidence informed practice which privilege the voice of coaches who work in elite rugby union. In doing so, we aim to offer a deeper insight regarding the development, implementation, and continued use of shared mental models to enhance performance. Through these first-person case studies, we present the development of two shared mental models and the processes taken, challenges faced, and coaching methods used to underpin them. The case studies are then discussed with implications for coaches' practice supporting the development of their players' collective decision making.

Interdisciplinary practice in performance sport: A scoping review of evidence of collaboration.

Performance support teams are increasingly comprised of sub-disciplines, bringing varied expertise to support an athlete or team in achieving the desired result. With more voices in the room, however, there is a need to investigate how these individuals can effectively work together collaboratively. Accordingly, the present study reviewed empirical articles that have examined interdisciplinary practice in performance sport. In total, 22 articles met the full inclusion criteria. We discuss the four key themes that emerged from the literature linked to these contexts: namely, Theoretical frameworks, Facilitative leadership and culture, Organisational and logistical structure and processes, and Personal and interpersonal qualities. To deepen the understanding in this intricate field, conducting future research such as longitudinal studies that follow team working practices over time and delve into the lived experiences of teams, as well as the perspectives of various stakeholders, would be beneficial.

The terminology used to describe team working in elite sports is often ambiguous and interchangeable. To provide clarity, the following concise framing is proposed: multidisciplinary refers to a combination of several disciplines and methods; interdisciplinary denotes the connection between, among, and reciprocal collaboration; and transdisciplinary refers to going beyond, through, and across.For elite sports teams to reflect on their working practices, the following key areas should be considered: theoretical framework (programme philosophy), facilitative leadership and culture, organisational and logistical structures and processes, and personal and interpersonal qualities of the team.As the terminology around team working in elite sports remains ambiguous, future research should strive to uncover the lived experiences and practices of these teams. With scarce literature on the practice of interdisciplinarity within this field, other industries' models could provide a stepping stone for investigation.

Blank canvas or under construction? Examining the pre-academy experiences of young developing professional team sports athletes.

Introduction: Extensive research has been carried out on Talent Development (TD) environments and an increasing amount of work shows the development of psychological characteristics as an important formal part of the academy experience. Importantly, however, very little attention has been paid to what types of skills, if any, young players arrive with. In other words, there seems to be an assumption that young athletes arrive at the academy as a blank canvas. Methods: As such, to investigate whether players' arrive with these psychological characteristics, we looked across a sample of young footballers' and rugby players' personal experiences (such as, family input, sporting background or personal challenges) prior joining the academy. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted, and data were analysed via thematic analysis. Results: Our findings suggested that young athletes acquired an aptitude from general experiences, whereby they had already started to develop and deploy specific skills (such as, reflective practice, mental skills or seeking social support) to navigate particular challenges, prior to arriving at the academy. Conclusion: Implications include the need for coaches and psychologists to assess young athletes' skillsets and pre-academy experiences upon arrival and use this as a starting point for developing tailored and individualised pathways that would enable them maximise their potential.

Reading the MAP: A Pracademic Perspective on the Current State of Play of the Multi-Action Plan Model with Regard to Transitions between Mental States.

The Multi-Action Plan (MAP) presents as an action-focused, sport-specific, mixed methods intervention model. MAP research characterized four Performance Types (PTs). Each PT operates on an affective, cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological level-across performance contexts. In this narrative review, we present a synthesis of our current understanding of MAP research, coupled with offering applied implications and directions for future research. We make the case for investigating the timing of transitions between PTs as our primary area of interest in expanding the MAP framework on a conceptual and applied level. Regarding pre-transition cues, we offer ideas on examining socio-environmental precursors to performance, with the aim of expanding MAP from a psycho-bio (affective, cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological dimensions) to a biopsychosocial concept (affective, cognitive, behavioral, psychophysiological, and socio-environmental dimensions). Regarding post-transition, we propose that investigating short- and long-term effort and reward perception will yield valuable insights into athletes' rationales behind the selection, operationalization, and experience of specific PTs. Finally, and from a pracademic perspective, we reflect critically on the achievements of MAP research thus far and provide specific directions for future research.

Sharpening the tip of the spear: Tailoring performance psychology for Special Operation Forces.

As performance psychology expands to address different environments, military settings are viewed as a natural extension. In certain cases, however, we suggest that a sub-optimal approach has been employed, due to a lack of specific knowledge of military culture and context, coupled with a diminished emphasis on conducting psychological research targeted directly on military performance. In this paper we explore the specific and importantly unique challenges encountered when researching and consulting with Special Operation Forces (SOF) within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance. To support both researchers and practitioners, we offer an overview of the current state of knowledge in this specific domain. We highlight key differences between SOF and conventional forces, then look at the specific requirements for developing performance psychology in the SOF context. Finally, we offer some perspectives on where opportunities might have been missed and offer some suggestions for more impactful (and accurate) research and practice.

Happy Birthday? Relative Age Benefits and Decrements on the Rocky Road.

(1) Background: There is abundant literature in talent development investigating the relative age effect in talent systems. There is also growing recognition of the reversal of relative age advantage, a phenomenon that sees significantly higher numbers of earlier born players leaving talent systems before the elite level. However, there has been little investigation of the mechanisms that underpin relative age, or advantage reversal. This paper aimed to investigate (a) the lived experience of relative age in talent development (TD) systems, (b) compare the experience of early and late born players, and (c) explore mechanisms influencing individual experiences. (2) Methods: interviews were conducted with a cohort of near elite and elite rugby union players. Data were subsequently analysed using reflexive thematic analysis and findings considered in light of eventual career status. (3) Results: challenge was an ever-present feature of all players journeys, especially at the point of transition to senior rugby. Psycho-behavioural factors seemed to be a primary mediator of the response to challenge. (4) Conclusions: a rethink of approach to the relative age effect is warranted, whilst further investigations of mechanisms are necessary. Relative age appears to be a population-level effect, driven by challenge dynamics.

Tough Love-Impactful, Caring Coaching in Psychologically Unsafe Environments.

(1) Background: The interpersonal dimensions of coaching in high performance sport have been subject to increasing scrutiny but with limited evidence to guide practice. Similarly, there is increasing practical interest in the concept of psychological safety, often portrayed as an implicitly desirable characteristic of all sporting environments but, as yet, still to receive research attention in high performance. As a first step to addressing these deficiencies, the present study addressed two research aims: (a) to examine the extent to which matched groups of international and released professional rugby union players perceived psychological safety to be an adaptive feature of their developmental experience and (b) to understand what elements of the player's coaching experience were perceived to be enabling or disenabling of future progress. (2) Methods: Seven rugby union players who had 'made it' and eight players who had been released from their professional contracts took part in a semi-structured interview exploring their developmental experiences. Data were subsequently analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis. (3) Results: Both groups of players found each of their talent development and high performance environments to be psychologically unsafe. Furthermore, players perceived coaches who were the most impactful in their development as offering 'tough love'. This included a range of 'harder' and 'softer' interpersonal approaches that presented the player with clear direction, role clarity and a sense of care. It appeared that this interpersonal approach helped the player to navigate, and benefit from, the psychologically unsafe high performance milieu. (4) Conclusions: There appear to be a number of balances for the coach in the high performance setting to navigate and a need for more nuance in applying constructs such as psychological safety.

Reflections on Reflection: Clarifying and Promoting Use in Experienced Coaches.

Background: We draw on the work of established scholars in the field of reflective practice who highlight its importance as a key cognitive skill for professionals to hold. While the substantive effect of engaging in reflective practice is emphasised in the literature, apparently coaches only spend a limited time learning about and engaging with it. Objectives: This study was conducted in two parts: Part 1 examined coaches' knowledge of reflective practice and ascertained their perceived lack of value and use of reflective practice within their coaching. In response to the unexpected findings in Part 1, in Part 2, we instituted an educational intervention to further these participant coaches' knowledge of Reflective Practice (RP) and facilitate its integration into their coaching practice. Design: The present study utilised a mixed method design with semi-structured interviews being conducted in Part 1. A coach development reflective programme inspired by Stimulated Recall approach was implemented in Part 2. Participants: Twelve high level coaches were interviewed about their reflective practices in Part 1. In Part 2, the same coaches agreed to participate in the educational intervention for the duration of the project. Results: Findings from Part 1 revealed an interesting paradox: coaches demonstrated a lack of appreciation for reflective practice yet recounted the positive influence that specific events and individuals had on their practice. In Part 2, to fully develop RP with the present cohort, an educational intervention was conducted. While watching videos of their own practice, coaches initially required lots of prompts from the lead interviewer to facilitate a deep and meaningful discussion of their practice. During the latter stages of the intervention, however, participants were less dependent on questions and prompts. Conclusion: In part 1, the coaches in this study did employ reflection, although they did not label it as such. The qualitative evidence we have gathered enables us to suggest that it is the combination of how to reflect, and against what criteria that makes RP a powerful tool to develop expertise which it has the potential to be. Importantly, however, additional coach education input is necessary for these benefits to be fully realised.

Psychological Safety in High-Performance Sport: Contextually Applicable?

In recent years, high-performance sport has seen a rising interest in Psychological Safety, a construct with a strong empirical basis in certain business contexts. As research and practice interest grows in PS, there are early indications of practitioners and, to a lesser extent research, treating the construct as being universally transferable. We offer three central concerns with this situation. Firstly, it seems that a variety of different interpretations in use may limit the practical application of the construct. Secondly, a concern that not all dimensions of PS are transferable or applicable in the HPSs context, especially for athletes. Finally, emerging evidence from outside of sport suggests potential downsides to the perceptions of PS in a performance/selection sets. We suggest that, as with all theories and constructs, there is a pressing need for nuance and context-specific evidence in how researchers and practitioners approach transferability plus, perhaps, a little more understanding of the real-world high-performance context.

Show Me, Tell Me: An Investigation Into Learning Processes Within Skateboarding as an Informal Coaching Environment.

Coach education is a learner-centred process, which often fails to consider the preferences of the consumer. Historically, research into performers' experiences of coaching have been influenced by the social constructivism of learning: in short, an expressed preference for what the performer has experienced as determined by their coach, rather than their own personal preferences. Therefore, this research used skateboarding as a natural laboratory in order to explore the current practices and preferences of performers in a coach-free environment. Ninety-one skateboarders from parks in the United Kingdom and New Zealand offered information relating to their current learning practices, how they learnt about learning, and how the top-level performers in their environment were differentiated. Findings suggest that a number of learning tools are used by performers, which are closely aligned with a more traditional, cognitive view of coaching (e.g., demonstration, drills, and error usage). Results also suggest that performers deployed a number of cognitive skills (e.g., imagery, analogy, and understanding) to enhance storage of a movement as an internal representation. Finally, in the absence of formal coaching, performers use their knowledge of learning to appoint informal leaders. Implications for practice are discussed.

The 3Ps: A tool for coach observation.

There is growing recognition of the value of "in situ" coach development practice across a variety sporting contexts. Unfortunately, however, there remains a limited number of tools available with which to observe coaching practice. In this study, we pilot and test a quasi-systematic tool for observation in the form of the 3Ps. Drawing on a range of representational perspectives, the theoretically neutral labels of "procedure", "planning", and "process" were developed for the purpose of holistic observation. In order to test the tool, a group of experienced coach development practitioners (n = 10) integrated the tool into their practice over a 12-month programme of professional development. Those participants subsequently took part in semi-structured interviews, in which they expressed a strong sense of acceptability, perceiving effectiveness and positive opportunity cost. We propose that the 3Ps tool presents a holistic and practically useful means of observing coaches' professional judgment and decision making. We also suggest future directions for the researcher who seeks to generate evidence in a naturalistic coaching context.

Exploring the use of the Psychological Characteristics of Developing Excellence (PCDEs) in younger age groups: First steps in the validation process of the PCDE Questionnaire for Children (PCDEQ-C).

Athletes who want to benefit most optimally and efficient from the Talent Development (TD) pathway, should start developing their psychological characteristics at a young age. The Psychological Characteristics Developing Excellence Questionnaire-Version 2 (PCDEQ2) can provide a full assessment of the mental characteristics athletes need. However, the PCDEQ2 has only been validated in adolescent athletes and as a consequence its does not contribute to the understanding of these psychological skills in a younger age group. The main purpose of this study was to take a first step in examining the factor structure and reliability of the Psychological Characteristics of Developing Excellence Questionnaire for Children (PCDEQ-C), a questionnaire based on the PCDEQ- 2. Firstly, the original questionnaire was translated to Dutch, age-adapted and redesigned for implementation in young athletes. Secondly, 774 participants (400 girls) from Flanders, Belgium, between 7 and 13 years (mean age of 10.61 ± 1.58) old filled out the questionnaire. After exploratory factor analysis, a new factor structure for the PCDEQ-C deemed an acceptable fit with 51 items in 5 factors. In the third stage, the reliability showed a good overall and internal consistency, with adequate relations between factors. The first steps in the validation process of the PCDEQ-C, suggest that this questionnaire could be a useful and reliable tool to assess the developmental psychological characteristics of 7-to-13-year-old athletes. The questionnaire is one of the first formative assessment tools to monitor and develop the psychological characteristics needed during the earliest talent development stages of a young athlete.

Delayed Processing of Chilled Whole Blood for 24 Hours Does Not Affect the Concentration of the Majority of Micronutrient Status Biomarkers.

BACKGROUND: The measurement of micronutrient status is essential to understand the health of individuals and populations, but there are limited data on the stability of micronutrients in whole blood. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to investigate the effects of delayed processing of whole blood on the stability of 25 micronutrient and selected clinical biomarkers. METHODS: Blood from 16 healthy adults was collected into EDTA, lithium heparin (LH), or serum tubes. Samples were processed within 2 hours of collection ("2-hour processed") or mailed overnight (boxed with frozen cold packs) before processing ("24-hour processed"). Micronutrient and clinical biomarker concentrations were quantified with validated methods. The concentration percentage difference between the 2- and 24-hour processed samples was calculated and was compared against quality specifications determined from intra- and interindividual variations. RESULTS: All analytes had a sample type where the percentage difference concentration between 2-hour and 24-hour processed samples was ≤4% and was acceptable based on calculated limits, including for biomarkers of vitamin A, vitamin D, thiamin, folate, vitamin B-12, iron (ferritin), and zinc status and for selected clinical markers, C-reactive protein, HDL and total cholesterol, and triglycerides. EDTA plasma vitamin C was lower compared to the 2-hour processed sample (geometric mean, 43%; 95% CI: 36%-49%). Pyridoxal-5-phosphate (vitamin B-6 biomarker) decreased, with differences from the 2-hour processed samples of -8% (95% CI: -13% to -2%) and -14% (95% CI: -18% to -9%) in LH plasma and serum, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In blood collected from adult participants, delayed processing of chilled whole blood for 24 hours did not materially affect the measured concentrations of the majority of micronutrients and selected clinical biomarkers. This suggests that for these analytes, adherence to a 2-hour processing protocol may be unnecessary. This knowledge is valuable and may help to simplify logistics for sample transport and processing of blood samples for micronutrient status assessment.