Discovery of Orally Bioavailable FGFR2/FGFR3 Dual Inhibitors via Structure-Guided Scaffold Repurposing Approach.

Fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) are transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinases that regulate multiple physiological processes. Aberrant activation of FGFR2 and FGFR3 has been linked to the pathogenesis of many tumor types, including cholangiocarcinoma and bladder cancer. Current therapies targeting the FGFR2/3 pathway exploiting small-molecule kinase inhibitors are associated with adverse events due to undesirable inhibition of FGFR1 and FGFR4. Isoform-specific FGFR2 and FGFR3 inhibitors that spare FGFR1 and FGFR4 could offer a favorable toxicity profile and improved therapeutic window to current treatments. Herein we disclose the discovery of dual FGFR2/FGFR3 inhibitors exploiting scaffold repurposing of a previously reported ALK2 tool compound. Structure-based drug design and structure-activity relationship studies were employed to identify selective and orally bioavailable inhibitors with equipotent activity toward wild-type kinases and a clinically observed gatekeeper mutant.

Discovery of Novel Pyrazolopyrimidines as Potent, Selective, and Orally Bioavailable Inhibitors of ALK2.

Activin receptor-like kinase 2 (ALK2) is a transmembrane kinase receptor that mediates the signaling of the members of the TGF-ß superfamily. The aberrant activation of ALK2 has been linked to the rare genetic disorder fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) and diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) that are associated with severely reduced life expectancy in pediatric patients. ALK2 has also been shown to play an essential role in iron metabolism by regulating hepcidin levels and affecting anemia of chronic disease. Thus, selective inhibition of ALK2 has emerged as a promising strategy for the treatment of multiple disorders. Herein, we report the discovery of a novel pyrazolopyrimidines series as highly potent, selective, and orally bioavailable inhibitors of ALK2. Structure-based drug design and systematic structure-activity relationship studies were employed to identify potent inhibitors displaying high selectivity against other ALK subtypes with good pharmacokinetic profiles.

Inhibition of ALK2 with bicyclic pyridyllactams.

Activin receptor-like kinase 2 (ALK2) has been implicated as a key target in multiple rare diseases. Herein, we describe the design of a novel bicyclic lactam series of potent and selective ALK2 inhibitors. This manuscript details an improvement in potency of two orders of magnitude from the initial bicyclic structure as well as a two-fold improvement in cellular potency from the original monocyclic inhibitor. Furthermore, we provide a detailed strategy for progressing this project in the future.

Long-Range Energy Transfer in Protein Megamolecules.

In this investigation, we report evidence for energy transfer in new protein-based megamolecules with tunable distances between donor and acceptor fluorescent proteins. The megamolecules used in this work are monodisperse oligomers, with molecular weights of ∼100-300 kDa and lengths of ∼5-20 nm, and are precisely defined structures of fusion protein building blocks and covalent cross-linkers. Such structures are promising because the study of energy transfer in protein complexes is usually difficult in this long length regime due to synthetic limitations. We incorporated fluorescent proteins into the megamolecule structure and varied the separation distance between donor and acceptor by changing the length of the cross-linker in dimer conjugates and inserting nonfluorescent spacer proteins to create oligomers. Two-photon absorption measurements demonstrated strong coupling between donor and acceptor dipoles in the megamolecules. For the dimer systems, no effect of the cross-linker length on energy transfer efficiency was observed with the steady-state fluorescence investigation. However, for the same dimer conjugates, energy transfer rates decreased upon increasing cross-linker length, as evaluated by fluorescence up-conversion. Molecular dynamics simulations were used to rationalize the results, providing quantitative agreement between measured and calculated energy transfer lengths for steady-state results, and showing that the differences between the time-resolved and steady-state measurements arise from the long time scale for large-scale fluctuations in the megamolecule structure. Our results show an increase in energy transfer length with increasing megamolecule size. This is evidence for long-range energy transfer in large protein megamolecules.

Free-Energy Profiles for A-/B-DNA Conformational Transitions in Isolated and Aggregated States from All-Atom Molecular Dynamics Simulation.

In ordinary aqueous solution, B-DNA is the major structural form of DNA. After the addition of ethanol, DNA is thought to be aggregated/condensed in the A-form structure. However, there is uncertainty as to whether the B-to-A conformational change is connected to the aggregation/condensation steps. In this study, we performed all-atom molecular dynamics simulations and calculated the free-energy surface involved in the A/B conformational transition for isolated and aggregated Dickerson-Drew dodecamers (DDDs) in water and 85% ethanol environments. We found in the case of an isolated DDD, the overall free-energy profile is entirely downhill to give the B-DNA conformation in both water and 85% ethanol. However, in the aggregated state and 85% ethanol environment, there is a free-energy minimum associated with the A-DNA region in addition to the global B-DNA minimum, and there is a ∼3 kcal/mol free-energy barrier to the A-to-B conformational change. The molecular dynamics results suggest that aggregation of DNA is essential for forming A-DNA.

All-Atom Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Peptide Amphiphile Assemblies That Spontaneously Form Twisted and Helical Ribbon Structures.

Self-assembly of peptide amphiphiles (PAs) has been an active research area as the assemblies can be programmed into variously shaped nanostructures. Although cylindrical micelles are common structures, gold-binding peptide conjugates can self-assemble into chiral nanofibers with single or double helices. When gold nanoparticles bind to the helices, the resulting chiral nanoparticle assemblies have a collective plasmonic circular dichroism signal that can serve as nanoscale circular polarizers or chiroptical sensors. A better atomic-level understanding of the factors which lead to helical PA assemblies is therefore of significant importance. In this study we show that all-atom molecular dynamics simulations can describe the spontaneous structural transformation from a planar assembly of PAs to a twisted assembly or to a helical ribbon. The twist angle and the helical diameter calculated from the simulations closely match the experimental results, with the oxidation of a single Met residue in each PA leading to a change from bilayer to monolayer assemblies with significantly different ribbon properties. A secondary structure analysis shows how a combination of ß-sheet formation near the hydrophobic core of the micelle and PPII structures from proline-rich C-terminus regions favors helix formation. The simulations presented here demonstrate the capability of predicting self-assembly in chiral structures, protocols that can easily be applied to the assembly of other amphiphilic molecules.

Molecular Dynamics Simulation and Experimental Studies of Gold Nanoparticle Templated HDL-like Nanoparticles for Cholesterol Metabolism Therapeutics.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) plays an important role in the transport and metabolism of cholesterol. Mimics of HDL are being explored as potentially powerful therapeutic agents for removing excess cholesterol from arterial plaques. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) functionalized with apolipoprotein A-I and with the lipids 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[3-(2-pyridyldithio)propionate] have been demonstrated to be robust acceptors of cellular cholesterol. However, detailed structural information about this functionalized HDL AuNP is still lacking. In this study, we have used X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and lecithin/cholesterol acyltransferase activation experiments together with coarse-grained and all-atom molecular dynamics simulations to model the structure and cholesterol uptake properties of the HDL AuNP construct. By simulating different apolipoprotein-loaded AuNPs, we find that lipids are oriented differently in regions with and without apoA-I. We also show that in this functionalized HDL AuNP, the distribution of cholesteryl ester maintains a reverse concentration gradient that is similar to the gradient found in native HDL.

Contraction and Expansion of Stimuli-Responsive DNA Bonds in Flexible Colloidal Crystals.

DNA surface ligands can be used as programmable "bonds" to control the arrangement of nanoparticles into crystalline superlattices. Here, we study the intrinsic responsiveness of these DNA bonds to changes in local dielectric constant (εr) as a new approach to dynamically modulate superlattice structure. Remarkably, ethanol (EtOH) addition can be used to controllably tune DNA bond length from 16 to 3 nm and to increase bond stability by >40 °C, while retaining long-range order and crystal habit. Interestingly, we find that these structural changes, which involve the expansion and contraction of crystals by up to 75% in volume, occur in a cooperative fashion once a critical percentage of EtOH is reached. These results provide a facile and robust approach to create stimuli-responsive lattices, to access high volume fractions, and to improve thermal stability.

Selectivity of Pyridone- and Diphenyl Ether-Based Inhibitors for the Yersinia pestis FabV Enoyl-ACP Reductase.

The enoyl-ACP reductase (ENR) catalyzes the last reaction in the elongation cycle of the bacterial type II fatty acid biosynthesis (FAS-II) pathway. While the FabI ENR is a well-validated drug target in organisms such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Staphylococcus aureus, alternate ENR isoforms have been discovered in other pathogens, including the FabV enzyme that is the sole ENR in Yersinia pestis (ypFabV). Previously, we showed that the prototypical ENR inhibitor triclosan was a poor inhibitor of ypFabV and that inhibitors based on the 2-pyridone scaffold were more potent [Hirschbeck, M. (2012) Structure 20 (1), 89-100]. These studies were performed with the T276S FabV variant. In the work presented here, we describe a detailed examination of the mechanism and inhibition of wild-type ypFabV and the T276S variant. The T276S mutation significantly reduces the affinity of diphenyl ether inhibitors for ypFabV (20-fold → 100-fold). In addition, while T276S ypFabV generally displays an affinity for 2-pyridone inhibitors higher than that of the wild-type enzyme, the 4-pyridone scaffold yields compounds with similar affinity for both wild-type and T276S ypFabV. T276 is located at the N-terminus of the helical substrate-binding loop, and structural studies coupled with site-directed mutagenesis reveal that alterations in this residue modulate the size of the active site portal. Subsequently, we were able to probe the mechanism of time-dependent inhibition in this enzyme family by extending the inhibition studies to include P142W ypFabV, a mutation that results in a gain of slow-onset inhibition for the 4-pyridone PT156.

Light-Driven Ca(2+) Ion Pump: How Does It Work?

Work done by Bennett et al. [ Nature 2002 , 420 , 398 - 401 ] demonstrated that Ca(2+) ions can be actively transported through a lipid bilayer membrane by an artificial photosynthetic machine. However, details of the pump process, such as the oxidation state of the shuttle molecule and stoichiometry of the shuttle-ion complex, are not fully understood, which hinders the development of ion pumps of this type with higher efficiency. In this study, we combine all atom molecular dynamics simulations and quantum mechanics calculations to estimate the time scale of the shuttle-ion complex diffusion process and charge transfer step. We find that the process of shuttle-ion complex diffusion across the lipid bilayer membrane is the rate-limiting step, with a time scale of seconds to minutes. Other processes such as charge transfer between the redox reaction center and the shuttle molecule have picoseconds time scales. We also show that a shuttle-ion complex with 2:1 stoichiometry ratio has a lower energy barrier across the lipid membrane than other choices of complexes. The calculations show that the Ca(2+) ion is likely to be shuttled by a semiquinone type of shuttle molecule as this has the lowest free energy barrier across the lipid bilayer membrane, the fewest electrons transferred in the redox cycle, and it does not generate (or require) proton flow. Estimates of ion flow rates are consistent with measured values.

Rational Modulation of the Induced-Fit Conformational Change for Slow-Onset Inhibition in Mycobacterium tuberculosis InhA.

Slow-onset enzyme inhibitors are the subject of considerable interest as an approach to increasing the potency of pharmaceutical compounds by extending the residence time of the inhibitor on the target (the lifetime of the drug-receptor complex). However, rational modulation of residence time presents significant challenges because it requires additional mechanistic insight, such as the nature of the transition state for postbinding isomerization. Our previous work, based on X-ray crystallography, enzyme kinetics, and molecular dynamics simulation, suggested that the slow step in inhibition of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis enoyl-ACP reductase InhA involves a change in the conformation of the substrate binding loop from an open state in the initial enzyme-inhibitor complex to a closed state in the final enzyme-inhibitor complex. Here, we use multidimensional free energy landscapes for loop isomerization to obtain a computational model for the transition state. The results suggest that slow-onset inhibitors crowd key side chains on helices that slide past each other during isomerization, resulting in a steric clash. The landscapes become significantly flatter when residues involved in the steric clash are replaced with alanine. Importantly, this lower barrier can be increased by rational inhibitor redesign to restore the steric clash. Crystallographic studies and enzyme kinetics confirm the predicted effects on loop structure and flexibility, as well as inhibitor residence time. These loss and regain of function studies validate our mechanistic hypothesis for interactions controlling substrate binding loop isomerization, providing a platform for the future design of inhibitors with longer residence times and better in vivo potency. Similar opportunities for slow-onset inhibition via the same mechanism are identified in other pathogens.

Ultrafast Structural Dynamics of BlsA, a Photoreceptor from the Pathogenic Bacterium Acinetobacter baumannii.

Acinetobacter baumannii is an important human pathogen that can form biofilms and persist under harsh environmental conditions. Biofilm formation and virulence are modulated by blue light, which is thought to be regulated by a BLUF protein, BlsA. To understand the molecular mechanism of light sensing, we have used steady-state and ultrafast vibrational spectroscopy to compare the photoactivation mechanism of BlsA to the BLUF photosensor AppA from Rhodobacter sphaeroides. Although similar photocycles are observed, vibrational data together with homology modeling identify significant differences in the ß5 strand in BlsA caused by photoactivation, which are proposed to be directly linked to downstream signaling.

Time-dependent diaryl ether inhibitors of InhA: structure-activity relationship studies of enzyme inhibition, antibacterial activity, and in vivo efficacy.

The diaryl ethers are a novel class of antituberculosis drug candidates that inhibit InhA, the enoyl-ACP reductase involved in the fatty acid biosynthesis (FASII) pathway, and have antibacterial activity against both drug-sensitive and drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In the present work, we demonstrate that two time-dependent B-ring modified diaryl ether InhA inhibitors have antibacterial activity in a mouse model of TB infection when delivered by intraperitoneal injection. We propose that the efficacy of these compounds is related to their residence time on the enzyme, and to identify structural features that modulate drug-target residence time in this system, we have explored the inhibition of InhA by a series of B-ring modified analogues. Seven ortho-substituted compounds were found to be time-dependent inhibitors of InhA, where the slow step leading to the final enzyme-inhibitor complex (EI*) is thought to correlate with closure and ordering of the InhA substrate binding loop. A detailed mechanistic understanding of the molecular basis for residence time in this system will facilitate the development of InhA inhibitors with improved in vivo activity.

A structural and energetic model for the slow-onset inhibition of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis enoyl-ACP reductase InhA.

Slow-onset enzyme inhibitors are of great interest for drug discovery programs since the slow dissociation of the inhibitor from the drug-target complex results in sustained target occupancy leading to improved pharmacodynamics. However, the structural basis for slow-onset inhibition is often not fully understood, hindering the development of structure-kinetic relationships and the rational optimization of drug-target residence time. Previously we demonstrated that slow-onset inhibition of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis enoyl-ACP reductase InhA correlated with motions of a substrate-binding loop (SBL) near the active site. In the present work, X-ray crystallography and molecular dynamics simulations have been used to map the structural and energetic changes of the SBL that occur upon enzyme inhibition. Helix-6 within the SBL adopts an open conformation when the inhibitor structure or binding kinetics is substrate-like. In contrast, slow-onset inhibition results in large-scale local refolding in which helix-6 adopts a closed conformation not normally populated during substrate turnover. The open and closed conformations of helix-6 are hypothesized to represent the EI and EI* states on the two-step induced-fit reaction coordinate for enzyme inhibition. These two states were used as the end points for nudged elastic band molecular dynamics simulations resulting in two-dimensional potential energy profiles that reveal the barrier between EI and EI*, thus rationalizing the binding kinetics observed with different inhibitors. Our findings indicate that the structural basis for slow-onset kinetics can be understood once the structures of both EI and EI* have been identified, thus providing a starting point for the rational control of enzyme-inhibitor binding kinetics.

Thiolactomycin-based ß-ketoacyl-AcpM synthase A (KasA) inhibitors: fragment-based inhibitor discovery using transient one-dimensional nuclear overhauser effect NMR spectroscopy.

Thiolactomycin (TLM) is a natural product inhibitor of KasA, the ß-ketoacyl synthase A from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. To improve the affinity of TLM for KasA, a series of TLM analogs have been synthesized based on interligand NOEs between TLM and a pantetheine analog when both are bound simultaneously to the enzyme. Kinetic binding data reveal that position 3 of the thiolactone ring is a suitable position for elaboration of the TLM scaffold, and the structure-activity relationship studies provide information on the molecular features that govern time-dependent inhibition in this enzyme system. These experiments also exemplify the utility of transient one-dimensional NOE spectroscopy for obtaining interligand NOEs compared with traditional steady state two-dimensional NOESY spectroscopy.

CoA Adducts of 4-Oxo-4-Phenylbut-2-enoates: Inhibitors of MenB from the M. tuberculosis Menaquinone Biosynthesis Pathway.

A high-throughput screen led to the discovery of 2-amino-4-oxo-4-phenylbutanoate inhibitors of the 1,4-dihydroxy-2-naphthoyl-CoA synthase (MenB) from the menaquinone biosynthesis pathway in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, these compounds are unstable in solution and eliminate to form the corresponding 4-oxo-4-phenylbut-2-enoates that then react with CoA in situ to form nanomolar inhibitors of MenB. The potency of these compounds results from interaction of the CoA adduct carboxylate with the MenB oxyanion hole, a conserved structural motif in the crotonase superfamily. 4-Oxo-4-chlorophenylbutenoyl methyl ester has MICs of 0.6 and 1.5 µg/ml against replicating and nonreplicating M. tuberculosis, respectively, and it is proposed that the methyl ester penetrates the cell where it is hydrolyzed and reacts with CoA to generate the active antibacterial. The CoA adducts thus represent an important foundation for the development of novel MenB inhibitors, and suggest a general approach to the development of potent inhibitors of acyl-CoA binding enzymes.

Genetic and epidemiological analysis of influenza virus epidemics in Taiwan during 2003 to 2006.

The genetic characterization of Taiwanese influenza A and B viruses on the basis of analyses of pairwise amino acid variations, genetic clustering, and phylogenetics was performed. A total of 548, 2,123, and 1,336 sequences of the HA1 genes of influenza A virus subtypes H1 and H3 and influenza B virus, respectively, collected during 2003 to 2006 from an island-wide surveillance network were determined. Influenza A virus H3 showed activity during all periods, although it was dominant only in the winters of 2002-2003 and 2003-2004. Instead, influenza B virus and influenza A virus H1 were dominant in the winters of 2004-2005 and 2005-2006, respectively. Additionally, two influenza A virus H3 peaks were found in the summers of 2004 and 2005. From clustering analysis, similar characteristics of high sequence diversity and short life spans for the influenza A virus H1 and H3 clusters were observed, despite their distinct seasonal patterns. In contrast, clusters with longer life spans and fewer but larger clusters were found among the influenza B viruses. We also noticed that more amino acid changes at antigenic sites, especially at sites B and D in the H3 viruses, were found in 2003 and 2004 than in the following 2 years. The only epidemic of the H1 viruses, which occurred in the winter of 2005-2006, was caused by two genetically distinct lineages, and neither of them showed apparent antigenic changes compared with the antigens of the vaccine strain. For the influenza B viruses, the multiple dominant lineages of Yamagata-like strains with large genetic variations observed reflected the evolutionary pressure caused by the Yamagata-like vaccine strain. On the other hand, only one dominant lineage of Victoria-like strains circulated from 2004 to 2006.

Genetic analysis and evaluation of the reassortment of influenza B viruses isolated in Taiwan during the 2004-2005 and 2006-2007 epidemics.

Influenza B viruses were predominant in Taiwan during the 2004-2005 epidemic and both Victoria and Yamagata lineage viruses co-circulated. A reassortant influenza B virus that contained a Victoria lineage hemagglutinin (HA) gene and Yamagata lineage neuraminidase (NA) gene appeared first in 2002 and became predominant during the 2004-2005 epidemic. During the 2006-2007 epidemic, an influenza B outbreak occurred in Taiwan and only Victoria lineage viruses circulated. We characterized the viruses isolated in the 2006-2007 epidemic and found that the HA genes of influenza B viruses from that epidemic were highly similar to those from the 2004-2005 epidemic. We also analyzed the NA genes of isolates from the 2006-2007 epidemic and found that they all belonged to the Yamagata lineage and formed a new genetic subclade. Comparison of isolates from the 2004-2005 and 2006-2007 epidemics revealed four substitutions, N220K, E320D, K343R and E404K in NA genes. Although the HA sequences from the 2006-2007 epidemic were similar to those from the 2004-2005 epidemic, the NA sequences differed, suggesting distinct patterns of evolution of the HA and NA genes from 2004-2007 in Taiwan. This study emphasizes that the evolution of the NA genes may contribute to reemergence of influenza B viruses.

Crystal structure of Bacillus subtilis guanine deaminase: the first domain-swapped structure in the cytidine deaminase superfamily.

Guanine deaminase, a key enzyme in the nucleotide metabolism, catalyzes the hydrolytic deamination of guanine into xanthine. The crystal structure of the 156-residue guanine deaminase from Bacillus subtilis has been solved at 1.17-A resolution. Unexpectedly, the C-terminal segment is swapped to form an intersubunit active site and an intertwined dimer with an extensive interface of 3900 A(2) per monomer. The essential zinc ion is ligated by a water molecule together with His(53), Cys(83), and Cys(86). A transition state analog was modeled into the active site cavity based on the tightly bound imidazole and water molecules, allowing identification of the conserved deamination mechanism and specific substrate recognition by Asp(114) and Tyr(156'). The closed conformation also reveals that substrate binding seals the active site entrance, which is controlled by the C-terminal tail. Therefore, the domain swapping has not only facilitated the dimerization but has also ensured specific substrate recognition. Finally, a detailed structural comparison of the cytidine deaminase superfamily illustrates the functional versatility of the divergent active sites found in the guanine, cytosine, and cytidine deaminases and suggests putative specific substrate-interacting residues for other members such as dCMP deaminases.