RNA-seq analysis of amygdala tissue reveals characteristic expression profiles in schizophrenia.

The amygdala brain region has been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia through emotion processing. However, transcriptome messages in the amygdala of schizophrenia patients have not been well studied. We used RNA sequencing to investigate gene-expression profiling in the amygdala tissues, and identified 569 upregulated and 192 downregulated genes from 22 schizophrenia patients and 24 non-psychiatric controls. Gene functional enrichment analysis demonstrated that the downregulated genes were enriched in pathways such as 'synaptic transmission' and 'behavior', whereas the upregulated genes were significantly over-represented in gene ontology pathways such as 'immune response' and 'blood vessel development'. Co-expression-based gene network analysis identified seven modules including four modules significantly associated with 'synaptic transmission', 'blood vessel development' or 'immune responses'. Taken together, our study provides novel insights into the molecular mechanism of schizophrenia, suggesting that precision-tailored therapeutic approaches aimed at normalizing the expression/function of specific gene networks could be a promising option in schizophrenia.

Src kinase as a mediator of convergent molecular abnormalities leading to NMDAR hypoactivity in schizophrenia.

Numerous investigations support decreased glutamatergic signaling as a pathogenic mechanism of schizophrenia, yet the molecular underpinnings for such dysregulation are largely unknown. In the post-mortem dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), we found striking decreases in tyrosine phosphorylation of N-methyl-D aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit 2 (GluN2) that is critical for neuroplasticity. The decreased GluN2 activity in schizophrenia may not be because of downregulation of NMDA receptors as MK-801 binding and NMDA receptor complexes in postsynaptic density (PSD) were in fact increased in schizophrenia cases. At the postreceptor level, however, we found striking reductions in the protein kinase C, Pyk 2 and Src kinase activity that in tandem can decrease GluN2 activation. Given that Src serves as a hub of various signaling mechanisms affecting GluN2 phosphorylation, we postulated that Src hypoactivity may result from convergent alterations of various schizophrenia susceptibility pathways and thus mediate their effects on NMDA receptor signaling. Indeed, the DLPFC of schizophrenia cases exhibit increased PSD-95 and erbB4 and decreased receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase-α (RPTPα) and dysbindin-1, each of which reduces Src activity via protein interaction with Src. To test genomic underpinnings for Src hypoactivity, we examined genome-wide association study results, incorporating 13 394 cases and 34 676 controls. We found no significant association of individual variants of Src and its direct regulators with schizophrenia. However, a protein-protein interaction-based network centered on Src showed significant enrichment of gene-level associations with schizophrenia compared with other psychiatric illnesses. Our results together demonstrate striking decreases in NMDA receptor signaling at the postreceptor level and propose Src as a nodal point of convergent dysregulations affecting NMDA receptor pathway via protein-protein associations.

The genetic architecture of pediatric cognitive abilities in the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort.

The objective of this analysis was to examine the genetic architecture of diverse cognitive abilities in children and adolescents, including the magnitude of common genetic effects and patterns of shared and unique genetic influences. Subjects included 3689 members of the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort, a general population sample comprising those aged 8-21 years who completed an extensive battery of cognitive tests. We used genome-wide complex trait analysis to estimate the SNP-based heritability of each domain, as well as the genetic correlation between all domains that showed significant genetic influence. Several of the individual domains suggested strong influence of common genetic variants (for example, reading ability, h(2)g=0.43, P=4e-06; emotion identification, h(2)g=0.36, P=1e-05; verbal memory, h(2)g=0.24, P=0.005). The genetic correlations highlighted trait domains that are candidates for joint interrogation in future genetic studies (for example, language reasoning and spatial reasoning, r(g)=0.72, P=0.007). These results can be used to structure future genetic and neuropsychiatric investigations of diverse cognitive abilities.

VEGFA variants are associated with pre-school lung function, but not neonatal lung function.

BACKGROUND: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is implicated in airway remodelling and asthma development. We studied VEGFA gene variants and plasma levels and the development of lung function, bronchial hyperresponsiveness and asthma in childhood. METHODS: We analysed 13 SNPs in the VEGFA gene in 411 children from the COPSAC2000 high-risk birth cohort. Asthma was diagnosed prospectively, and lung function measurements were obtained at birth and 6 years of age. Plasma VEGF levels were measured at 18 months of age. We used a Bonferroni adjusted significance level. Findings were replicated in the Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy (PIAMA) birth cohort at age 8. RESULTS: At age six, three SNPs from the same linkage block were associated with FEV1 (rs699947, P = 1.31E-05), independent of asthma, and there were suggestive associations between FEV1/FVC ratio and rs833052 and maximal mid-expiratory flow and rs6900017. Replication in the PIAMA cohort showed borderline association between FEV1 and rs699947 and significant meta-analysis result. SNPs upstream and nearby rs699947 were nominally associated with VEGF plasma levels. VEGF levels were not associated with asthmatic symptoms or lung function measures. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: VEGF gene variants are associated with lung function at school age, but not at birth, suggesting a role of VEGF in post-natal lung function development.

HLA-DQ strikes again: genome-wide association study further confirms HLA-DQ in the diagnosis of asthma among adults.

BACKGROUND: Asthma is a common chronic respiratory disease in children and adults. An important genetic component to asthma susceptibility has long been recognized, most recently through the identification of several genes (e.g., ORMDL3, PDE4D, HLA-DQ, and TLE4) via genome-wide association studies. OBJECTIVE: To identify genetic variants associated with asthma affection status using genome-wide association data. METHODS: We describe results from a genome-wide association study on asthma performed in 3855 subjects using a panel of 455 089 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). RESULT: The genome-wide association study resulted in the prioritization of 33 variants for immediate follow-up in a multi-staged replication effort. Of these, a common polymorphism (rs9272346) localizing to within 1 Kb of HLA-DQA1 (chromosome 6p21.3) was associated with asthma in adults (P-value = 2.2E-08) with consistent evidence in the more heterogeneous group of adults and children (P-value = 1.0E-04). Moreover, some genes identified in prior asthma GWAS were nominally associated with asthma in our populations. CONCLUSION: Overall, our findings further replicate the HLA-DQ region in the pathogenesis of asthma. HLA-DQA1 is the fourth member of the HLA family found to be associated with asthma, in addition to the previously identified HLA-DRA, HLA-DQB1 and HLA-DQA2.

Characterisation of a novel NR4A2 mutation in Parkinson's disease brain.

OBJECTIVE: We performed a mutation screen of NR4A2 (also known as NURR1) in 409 Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. We identified a novel single base substitution in the 5'UTR of the NR4A2 (also known as NURR1) gene (c.-309C>T). RESULTS: We have performed expression studies in neuronal cell lines showing that the c.-309C>T mutation reduces NR4A2 mRNA expression in vitro. We have confirmed this finding in vivo by performing allele specific real-time PCR from brain tissue harbouring the 309C>T mutation and show a 3.48+/-1.62 fold reduction in mRNA expression of the mutant allele compared to wild-type. In addition we have undertaken genome wide expression analysis of the mutant NR4A2 brain and shown underexpressed genes were significantly enriched for gene ontology categories in nervous system development and synaptic transmission and overexpressed genes were enriched for unfolded protein response and morphogenesis. Lastly we have shown that the c.-309C>T mutation abrogates the protective effect of wild-type NR4A2 against apoptopic stress. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate the c.-309C>T mutation reduces NR4A2 expression resulting in the downregulation of genes involved in the development and maintenance of the nervous system and synaptic transmission. These downregulated pathways contained genes known to be transactivated by NR4A2 and were not disrupted in idiopathic PD brain suggesting causality of the mutation.

Hyposmia in G2019S LRRK2-related parkinsonism: clinical and pathologic data.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in PARK8 (LRRK2) are associated with autosomal dominant parkinsonism and Parkinson disease (PD). Hyposmia is present in at least 80% of patients with PD and an accumulation of alpha-synuclein (alpha-syn) is seen in the olfactory pathways. In this study we have clinically examined olfaction and pathologically examined the rhinencephalon in individuals carrying the G2019S LRRK2 mutation. METHODS: The University of Pennsylvania Smell Test (UPSIT) was used to evaluate the sense of smell in 19 parkinsonian and two asymptomatic carriers of the G2019S mutation and compared with groups of patients with PD and healthy controls. Postmortem examination of alpha-syn accumulation in the rhinencephalon was also carried out in four parkinsonian carriers of the G2019S mutation. RESULTS: The mean UPSIT score in G2019S parkinsonian carriers was lower than that in healthy controls (p < 0.001) and similar to that found in patients with PD (p > 0.999). Smell tests in two asymptomatic carriers of the G2019S mutation were in the normal range. Postmortem studies of the olfactory pathways in one of the patients who had been clinically tested, and found to have hyposmia, and three other cases with the G2019S mutation, revealed alpha-syn deposition in the olfactory pathways in all cases. CONCLUSIONS: Odor identification is diminished in LRRK2 G2019S mutation parkinsonism but the asymptomatic carriers of the mutation had normal olfaction. We found alpha-syn accumulation with Lewy bodies in the rhinencephalon in all four cases examined pathologically.

Genetic association studies of complex neurological diseases.

Genetic association studies offer a powerful approach to identify the multiple variants of small effect that modulate susceptibility to common, complex disease. They, however, have a poor reputation, mainly because of the consistent lack of replication of all but a few. Thousands of genetic studies have been carried out on multifactorial diseases in the past 30 years, yielding only about 50 variants that can be considered to be true positives. Although the positive studies show proof of principle, the multitude of negative studies indicate fundamental problems in the design and execution of association studies. Here, we discuss some of the more pertinent study design and data analysis issues which can affect the outcome of genetic association studies.

PINK1 protein in normal human brain and Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease is a common incurable neurodegenerative disease whose molecular aetiology remains unclear. The identification of Mendelian genes causing rare familial forms of Parkinson's disease has revealed novel proteins and pathways that are likely to be relevant in the pathogenesis of sporadic Parkinson's disease. Recently, mutations in a novel gene, PINK1, encoding a 581 amino acid protein with both mitochondrial targeting and serine/threonine kinase domains, were identified as a cause of autosomal recessive parkinsonism. This provided important evidence for the role of the mitochondrial dysfunction and kinase pathways in neurodegeneration. In this study, we report the first characterization of the PINK1 protein in normal human and sporadic Parkinson's brains, in addition to Parkinson's cases with heterozygous PINK1 mutations. The possible role of the PINK1 protein was also assessed in a number of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by proteinaceous inclusions. For these studies, rabbit polyclonal antibodies were raised against two peptide sequences within the N-terminal hydrophilic loops of PINK1 protein. Using immunohistochemistry and western blotting we were able to demonstrate that PINK1 is a ubiquitous protein expressed throughout the human brain and it is found in all cell types showing a punctate cytoplasmic staining pattern consistent with mitochondrial localization. Fractionation studies of human and rat brain confirm that PINK1 is localized to the mitochondrial membranes. In addition, we show that PINK1 is detected in a proportion of Lewy bodies in cases of sporadic Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's disease associated with heterozygous mutations in the PINK1 gene, which are clinically and pathologically indistinguishable from the sporadic cases. PINK1 was absent in cortical Lewy bodies, in neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy and corticobasal degeneration, and in the glial and neuronal alpha-synuclein positive inclusions in multiple system atrophy. These studies provide for the first time in vivo morphological and biochemical evidence to support a mitochondrial localization of PINK1 and underpin the significance of mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of nigral cell degeneration in Parkinson's disease.

The alpha-synuclein gene in multiple system atrophy.

BACKGROUND: The formation of alpha-synuclein aggregates may be a critical event in the pathogenesis of multiple system atrophy (MSA). However, the role of this gene in the aetiology of MSA is unknown and untested. METHOD: The linkage disequilibrium (LD) structure of the alpha-synuclein gene was established and LD patterns were used to identify a set of tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that represent 95% of the haplotype diversity across the entire gene. The effect of polymorphisms on the pathological expression of MSA in pathologically confirmed cases was also evaluated. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: In 253 Gilman probable or definite MSA patients, 457 possible, probable, and definite MSA cases and 1472 controls, a frequency difference for the individual tagging SNPs or tag-defined haplotypes was not detected. No effect was observed of polymorphisms on the pathological expression of MSA in pathologically confirmed cases.

Population genetic approaches to neurological disease: Parkinson's disease as an example.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common, progressive, incurable disabling condition. The cause is unknown but over the past few years tremendous progress in our understanding of the genetic bases of this condition has been made. To date, this has almost exclusively come from the study of relatively rare Mendelian forms of the disease and there are no currently, widely accepted common variants known to increase susceptibility. The role that the "Mendelian" genes play in common sporadic forms of PD is unknown. Moreover, most studies in PD can really be described as candidate polymorphism studies rather than true and complete assessments of the genes themselves. We provide a model of how one might tackle some of these issues using Parkinson's disease as an illustration. One of the emerging hypotheses of gene environment interaction in Parkinson's disease is based on drug metabolizing (or xenobiotic) enzymes and their interaction with putative environmental toxins. This motivated us to describe a tagging approach for an extensive but not exhaustive list of 55 drug metabolizing enzyme genes. We use these data to illustrate the power, and some of the limitations of a haplotype tagging approach. We show that haplotype tagging is extremely efficient and works well with only a modest increase in effort through different populations. The tagging approach works much less well if the minor allele frequency is below 5%. However, it will now be possible using these tags to evaluate these genes comprehensively in PD and other neurodegenerative conditions.

Linkage disequilibrium fine mapping and haplotype association analysis of the tau gene in progressive supranuclear palsy and corticobasal degeneration.

BACKGROUND: The haplotype H1 of the tau gene, MAPT, is highly associated with progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and corticobasal degeneration (CBD). OBJECTIVE: To investigate the pathogenic basis of this association. METHODS: Detailed linkage disequilibrium and common haplotype structure of MAPT were examined in 27 CEPH trios using validated HapMap genotype data for 24 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) spanning MAPT. RESULTS: Multiple variants of the H1 haplotype were resolved, reflecting a far greater diversity of MAPT than can be explained by the H1 and H2 clades alone. Based on this, six haplotype tagging SNPs (htSNPs) that capture 95% of the common haplotype diversity were used to genotype well characterised PSP and CBD case-control cohorts. In addition to strong association with PSP and CBD of individual SNPs, two common haplotypes derived from these htSNPs were identified that are highly associated with PSP: the sole H2 derived haplotype was underrepresented and one of the common H1 derived haplotypes was highly associated, with a similar trend observed in CBD. There were powerful and highly significant associations with PSP and CBD of haplotypes formed by three H1 specific SNPs. This made it possible to define a candidate region of at least approximately 56 kb, spanning sequences from upstream of MAPT exon 1 to intron 9. On the H1 haplotype background, these could harbour the pathogenic variants. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the pathological evidence that underlying variations in MAPT could contribute to disease pathogenesis by subtle effects on gene expression and/or splicing. They also form the basis for the investigation of the possible genetic role of MAPT in Parkinson's disease and other tauopathies, including Alzheimer's disease.

Hereditary motor and autonomic neuronopathy 1 maps to chromosome 20q13.2-13.3.

The spinal muscular atrophies (SMA) or hereditary motor neuronopathies result from the continuous degeneration and death of spinal cord lower motor neurons, leading to progressive muscular weakness and atrophy. We describe a large Brazilian family exhibiting an extremely rare, late-onset, dominant, proximal, and progressive SMA accompanied by very unusual manifestations, such as an abnormal sweating pattern, and gastrointestinal and sexual dysfunctions, suggesting concomitant involvement of the autonomic nervous system. We propose a new disease category for this disorder, 'hereditary motor and autonomic neuronopathy', and attribute the term, 'survival of motor and autonomic neurons 1' (SMAN1) to the respective locus that was mapped to a 14.5 cM region on chromosome 20q13.2-13.3 by genetic linkage analysis and haplotype studies using microsatellite polymorphic markers. This locus lies between markers D20S120 and D20S173 showing a maximum LOD score of 4.6 at D20S171, defining a region with 33 known genes, including several potential candidates. Identifying the SMAN1 gene should not only improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying lower motor neuron diseases but also help to clarify the relationship between motor and autonomic neurons.

Hereditary motor and autonomic neuronopathy 1 maps to chromosome 20q13.2-13.3

The spinal muscular atrophies (SMA) or hereditary motor neuronopathies result from the continuous degeneration and death of spinal cord lower motor neurons, leading to progressive muscular weakness and atrophy. We describe a large Brazilian family exhibiting an extremely rare, late-onset, dominant, proximal, and progressive SMA accompanied by very unusual manifestations, such as an abnormal sweating pattern, and gastrointestinal and sexual dysfunctions, suggesting concomitant involvement of the autonomic nervous system. We propose a new disease category for this disorder, `hereditary motor and autonomic neuronopathy', and attribute the term, `survival of motor and autonomic neurons 1' (SMAN1) to the respective locus that was mapped to a 14.5 cM region on chromosome 20q13.2-13.3 by genetic linkage analysis and haplotype studies using microsatellite polymorphic markers. This locus lies between markers D20S120 and D20S173 showing a maximum LOD score of 4.6 at D20S171, defining a region with 33 known genes, including several potential candidates. Identifying the SMAN1 gene should not only improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying lower motor neuron diseases but also help to clarify the relationship between motor and autonomic neurons.

PINK1 (PARK6) associated Parkinson disease in Ireland.

Mutations in the PINK1 gene have recently been shown to cause autosomal recessive Parkinson disease (PD). The authors assessed the prevalence of PINK1 gene mutations in 290 well-characterized early- and late-onset PD patients from Ireland. In a 51-year-old PD patient with a family history of PD, the authors identified a novel heterozygous mutation (R147H) in exon 2 of the PINK1 gene. Overall, these data indicate that PINK1 mutations are a rare cause of PD in Ireland.

Genetic approaches to solving common diseases.

The pathway to solving simple Mendelian inherited neurological disease is now well established. Barely a month goes by without new linkage data or mutations in a novel gene being reported. These developments are giving insights into a range of neurological conditions from the cortex to the muscle. However, most of these diseases are individually rare, and one of the major challenges facing neuroscience is to devise methods to find the genetic variants that confer risk of common diseases and differential response to treatment. This latter area is an important emerging field known as pharmacogenomics. Unlike Mendelian genetics where effective strategies are well established, the strategies for detecting moderate genetic effects in populations have been problematic. It is likely that a combination of techniques will be used, involving both linkage analysis and linkage disequilibrium mapping. In this review we consider some of the approaches that can be taken to resolve the common genetic variation underlying common disease.

Tau gene and Parkinson's disease: a case-control study and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the tau H1 haplotype is a genetic risk factor in Parkinson's disease and to report a meta-analysis on all previously published data METHODS: and results: In a sample of 580 patients with Parkinson's disease and 513 controls there was an increased risk of Parkinson's disease for both the tau H1 haplotype (p

DJ-1 mutations in Parkinson's disease.

Mutations in the DJ-1 gene have recently been shown to cause autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease. To estimate the prevalence of this mutation, an analysis was undertaken of 39 index cases of Parkinson's disease in whom a family history suggested autosomal recessive inheritance. No DJ-1 mutations were found in these patients, indicating that this gene is unlikely to be of numerical significance in clinical practice. The hypothesis was also tested that young onset Parkinson's disease patients in whom, despite extensive analysis, only a single heterozygous parkin mutation was found, might harbour a second mutation in the DJ-1 gene--that is, digenic inheritance. No patient was found with a single mutation in both DJ-1 and parkin genes, making this mode of inheritance unlikely. Finally it was confirmed that PARK6 and PARK7 (DJ-1), despite being phenotypically similar and mapping to the same small chromosomal region of 1p36, are caused by mutations in separate genes.

First application of preimplantation genetic diagnosis to neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2).

Neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) is a dominantly inherited cancer predisposition syndrome that is caused bymutations in the NF2 gene. We report here the first clinical preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) forNF2. A protocol was developed to simultaneously amplify the mutation and a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) located within the gene. The mutation and polymorphism were analysed by simultaneous fluorescent single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) on an automated DNA sequencer. The mutation, carried by the male partner, was a single base pair substitution affecting a splice site in intron 4 of the gene. The female partner was infertile due to polycystic ovary syndrome and would require IVF to conceive. The couple was found to be informative at a linked intragenic SNP situated in the 5' untranslated region of the gene. The SNP was included in the assay to reduce the risk of misdiagnosis due to allele dropout (ADO). The couple underwent three cycles of treatment during which a total of 43 blastomeres were biopsied from 31 embryos. Amplification at both loci was obtained in 35 cells (81%). A total of five embryos were transferred, two in the first cycle, two in the second and one in the third. No pregnancy ensued. The results of the diagnoses indicated that, in this couple, the inheritance of the mutation may be non-Mendelian. Out of a total of 32 embryos tested only four were found not to carry the mutation. The reasons for this apparent skew remain unknown.

Pregnancy following preimplantation genetic diagnosis for Crouzon syndrome.

Crouzon syndrome is a dominantly inherited craniosynostosis syndrome which is caused by mutations in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 gene (FGFR2). However, a specific point mutation in the FGFR3 gene has also been shown to result in Crouzon syndrome associated with acanthosis nigricans. We report here the first method for preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) of Crouzon syndrome based on multiplex PCR amplification followed by the direct detection of the causative mutation by single-stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis. A highly polymorphic short tandem repeat (STR) locus was simultaneously analysed as a control against some forms of contamination. The mutation, carried by the female partner, was a de-novo substitution at codon 338 of the FGFR2 gene. The couple were found to be informative at the D21S11 STR locus. Two clinical PGD cycles were performed, resulting in the biopsy of 36 blastomeres, 25 of which showed amplification at the FGFR2 locus. All of the cells showed expected genotypes at the D21S11 locus with only one incidence of allele drop-out. A total of five embryos were transferred, two in the first cycle and three in the second, resulting in a singleton pregnancy.