Effect of planting density of the macrophyte consortium of Typha domingensis and Eleocharis acutangula on phytoremediation of barium from a flooded contaminated soil.

Barite (BaSO4) is a component of drilling fluids used in the oil and gas industry and may cause barium (Ba) contamination if it is spilled onto flooded soils. Under anoxic soil conditions and low redox potential, sulfate can be reduced to a more soluble form (sulfide), and Ba can be made available. To design a solution for such environmental issues, a field study was conducted in a Ba-contaminated flooded area in Brazil, in which we induced Ba phytoextraction from the management of the planting density of two intercropped macrophytes. Typha domingensis and Eleocharis acutangula were grown in four initial planting densities: "Ld" (low density: 4 and 32 plants m-2); "Md" (medium density: 8 and 64 plants m-2); "Hd" (high density: 12 and 128 plants m-2); "Vhd" (very high density: 16 and 256 plants m-2). Vhd produced the largest number of plants after 300 days. However, the treatments did not differ in terms of the amount of biomass. The increments in the initial planting density did not increase the Ba concentration in the aerial part. The greatest Ba phytoextraction (aerial part + root) was achieved by Ld treatment, which removed approximately 3 kg of Ba ha-1. Md and Vhd treatments had the highest Ba translocation factors. Because more plants per area did not result in greater Ba phytoextraction, a lower planting density was recommended for the intercropping of T. domingensis and E. acutangula to promote the phytoextraction of barium, due to possible lower implementation costs in contaminated flooded environments.

Accumulation potential and tolerance response of Typha latifolia L. under citric acid assisted phytoextraction of lead and mercury.

Chelate-assisted phytoextraction by high biomass producing macrophyte plant Typha latifolia L. commonly known as cattail, is gaining much attention worldwide. The present study investigated the effects of Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg) on physiology and biochemistry of plant, Pb and Hg uptake in T. latifolia with and without citric acid (CA) amendment. The uniform seedlings of T. latifolia were treated with various concentrations in the hydroponics as: Pb and Hg (1, 2.5, 5 mM) each alone and/or with CA (5 mM). After four weeks of treatments, the results revealed that Pb and Hg significantly reduced the plant agronomic traits as compare to non-treated plants. The addition of CA improved the plant physiology and enhanced the antioxidant enzymes activities to overcome Pb and Hg induced oxidative damage and electrolyte leakage. Our results depicted that Pb and Hg uptake and accumulation by T. latifolia was dose depend whereas, the addition of CA further increased the concentration and accumulation of Pb and Hg by up to 22 & 35% Pb and 72 & 40% Hg in roots, 25 & 26% Pb and 85 & 60% Hg in stems and 22 & 15 Pb and 100 & 58% Hg in leaves respectively compared to Pb and Hg treated only plants. On other hand, the root-shoot translocation factor was ≥1 and bioconcentration factor was also ≥2 for both Pb & Hg. The results also revealed that T. latifolia showed greater tolerance towards Hg and accumulated higher Hg in all parts compared with Pb.

Chronic effects of microcystin-LR at environmental relevant concentrations on photosynthesis of Typha angustifolia Linn.

Understanding the growth and development of aquatic plants in eutrophic water is of great significance for the selection of potential candidate plant for use in the phytoremediation of eutrophic aquatic ecosystems. The present study aimed to investigate the chronic effects of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) on photosynthesis in the leaves of Typha angustifolia Linn. Photosynthetic activity was stimulated in the leaves following exposure to 4.6 µg L-1 MC-LR for six weeks based on the enhancement of Ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) activity and net photosynthetic rate (PN). However, PN decreased significantly after exposure to 49.1 or 98.3 µg L-1 MC-LR, via non-stomatal limitation by reducing the chlorophyll a and b contents and Rubisco activity. In addition, glycolate oxidase (GO) and serine:glyoxylate aminotransferase (SGAT) activities decreased significantly, indicating that the photorespiration pathway was affected adversely. The intercellular carbon dioxide (Ci) concentration decreased significantly following exposure to 98.3 µg L-1 MC-LR, accompanied with decreases in PN and stomatal conductivity (gs), indicating that stomatal limitation on the photosynthesis system in T. angustifolia L. was observed after exposure to 98.3 µg L-1 MC-LR. Under long-term exposure to MC-LR (49.1-98.3 µg L-1), oxidation stress was severe in the aquatic plant, and non-stomatal limitation or stomatal limitation effects on the photosynthesis system were obvious, resulting in decreases in photosynthesis rates.

The ethylene receptor regulates Typha angustifolia leaf aerenchyma morphogenesis and cell fate.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Ethylene receptor is crucial for PCD and aerenchyma formation in Typha angustifolia leaves. Not only does it receive and deliver the ethylene signal, but it probably can determine the cell fate during aerenchyma morphogenesis, which is due to the receptor expression quantity. Aquatic plant oxygen delivery relies on aerenchyma, which is formed by a programmed cell death (PCD) procedure. However, cells in the outer edge of the aerenchyma (palisade cells and septum cells) remain intact, and the mechanism is unclear. Here, we offer a hypothesis: cells that have a higher content of ethylene receptors do not undergo PCD. In this study, we investigated the leaf aerenchyma of the aquatic plant Typha angustifolia. Ethephon and pyrazinamide (PZA, an inhibitor of ACC oxidase) were used to confirm that ethylene is an essential hormone for PCD of leaf aerenchyma cells in T. angustifolia. That the ethylene receptor was an indispensable factor in this PCD was confirmed by 1-MCP (an inhibitor of the ethylene receptor) treatment. Although PCD can be avoided by blocking the ethylene receptor, excessive ethylene receptors also protect cells from PCD. TaETR1, TaETR2 and TaEIN4 in the T. angustifolia leaf were detected by immunofluorescence (IF) using polyclonal antibodies. The result showed that the content of ethylene receptors in PCD-unsusceptible cells was 4-14 times higher than that one in PCD-susceptible cells, suggesting that PCD-susceptible cells undergo the PCD programme, while PCD-unsusceptible cells do not due to the content difference in the ethylene receptor in different cells. A higher level of ethylene receptor content makes the cells insensitive to ethylene, thereby avoiding cell death and degradation.

Provisioning predatory mites with entomopathogenic fungi or pollen improves biological control of a greenhouse psyllid pest.

BACKGROUND: Tomato/potato psyllid (TPP), Bactericera cockerelli (Sulc), is a recently established invasive pest of solanaceous crops in New Zealand. No alternative control strategies are available against TPP due to the development of insecticidal resistance. We investigated the combined use of the predatory mites Amblydromalus limonicus or Neoseiulus cucumeris with either the fungus Beauveria bassiana (suspensions and dry conidia) or with Typha orientalis pollen as a control of TPP in greenhouse bell pepper over 7 weeks. RESULTS: All treatments significantly reduced TPP densities compared with the control. A. limonicus resulted in significantly lower TPP densities than any other combination with N. cucumeris. B. bassiana suspensions did not affect A. limonicus densities when they were combined. However, the application of dry B. bassiana conidia significantly reduced the densities of A. limonicus. The use of T. orientalis pollen resulted in significantly higher densities of A. limonicus but densities of N. cucumeris did not increase. The combined use of A. limonicus with B. bassiana suspensions or T. orientalis pollen resulted in significantly decreased TPP populations and greater crop yield. CONCLUSION: The synergistic application of A. limonicus with B. bassiana suspensions could be a suitable strategy to control TPP in the greenhouse. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Assessing nutrient responses and biomass quality for selection of appropriate paludiculture crops.

Tall wetland graminoids with rapid growth, high productivity and wide tolerance of biotic and abiotic stresses are potentially valuable bioenergy crops, especially when grown in rewetted peat soils for biomass (paludiculture). Using wetland plants as renewable bioenergy crops instead of fossil fuels has the ecological benefits of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, improving water quality and conserving peat soils. As these potential crops will grow in peat that differs in nutrient availability, not only will their biomass productivity be affected, but also the biomass quality for bioenergy may be altered. We set up five different nutrient availability treatments in waterlogged peat soil to simulate different nutrient environments for wetland plant cultivation. Seven wetland plants suitable for paludiculture (Typha latifolia, Arundo plinii, Arundo donax and four distinct genotypes of Phragmites australis from Denmark, The Netherlands, Romania and Italy) were selected to test responses of biomass production and tissue quality to different nutrient availability. Due to their high biomass productivity, T. latifolia, A. donax, Dutch (NL) and Romanian (RO) P. australis had the greatest potential to produce bioenergy feedstock. All taxa survived when cultivated with very low nutrient availability, especially NL and RO P. australis and T. latifolia. Moreover, biomass quality was both species-specific and element-specific, affected by increasing nutrient availability. Overall, T. latifolia had the lowest tissue concentrations of S and Si as well as high concentrations of Ca, and therefore the best tissue quality for combustion both at low and high nutrient availability. These results will provide crucial information for choosing appropriate crops and managements and promote the success of culturing wetland plants as bioenergy feedstock.

A Field Bioassay of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Phytoextraction from Biosolids in a Seasonally Frozen End-of-Life Municipal Lagoon Vegetated with Cattail.

Managing biosolids from end-of-life municipal lagoons is a major challenge for many small communities where landfilling or spreading of biosolids on farmland is restricted. Contaminant removal via phytoextraction may be a viable remediation option for end-of-life lagoons in such communities. This study examined the effect of harvest frequency (once or twice per season) on cattail ( L.) biomass yield and N and P removal under a terrestrial phytoremediation system designed to treat the dewatered secondary cell of a municipal lagoon in Manitoba, Canada. Cattail was harvested once or twice per season from eight vegetation transects, each divided into two plots (2.5 × 2.5 m) to accommodate the two harvest frequencies. Biomass yields were greater for the single harvest (5.7 t ha yr) than for two harvests per season (4.8 t ha yr). This was mirrored by N phytoextraction, which was also greater for the single harvest (71 kg ha yr) than the two-harvest frequency (58 kg ha yr). Phosphorus phytoextraction varied with year of harvest and ranged from 8 to 14 kg ha yr. Cumulative N and P phytoextraction amounts during the 5 yr were 330 kg N ha and 57 kg P ha. A greater fraction of N (51-91 kg ha yr) and P (23-40 kg ha yr) was sequestered in the belowground biomass (11-17 t ha yr) and therefore was not removed by harvesting. These results show that phytoremediation using cattail is a viable option for managing N and P in end-life lagoons.

Vertical subsurface flow constructed wetlands for the removal of petroleum contaminants from secondary refinery effluent at the Kaduna refining plant (Kaduna, Nigeria).

Typha latifolia-planted vertical subsurface flow constructed wetlands (VSSF CWs) and an unplanted microcosm constructed wetland were used for treating secondary refinery wastewater from the Kaduna Refining and Petrochemical Company (KRPC, Nigeria). Cow dung was applied to the planted wetlands at the start of the experiment and after 3 months to enhance plant growth and petroleum degradation. The T. latifolia-planted VSSF CWs removed 45-99% total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH), 99-100% phenol, 70-80% oil and grease, 45-91% chemical oxygen demand (COD), and 46-88% total suspended solids (TSSs). The performance of the unplanted control VSSF CW achieved lower removal efficiencies (15-58% TPH, 86-91% phenol, 16-44% oil and grease, 24-66% COD, and 20-55% TSS). T. latifolia plants had a bioaccumulation factor (BAF) > 1 for phenol, total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphate (TP), suggesting a high removal performance for these contaminants and good translocation ability (TF) for TPH, phenol, oil and grease, and TN, with the exception of TP which was mainly retained in their roots (BAF = 47). This study showed T. latifolia is a good candidate plant to be used in VSSF CWs for polishing secondary refinery wastewater in developing countries.

Accelerated seed dispersal along linear disturbances in the Canadian oil sands region.

Habitat fragmentation is typically seen as inhibiting movement via erosion in connectivity, although some patterns of early-phase disturbance, such as narrow linear disturbances in otherwise undisturbed forests, may actually facilitate the dispersal of certain species. Such features are common in Alberta's oil sands region as legacies from seismic hydrocarbon exploration used to map oil reserves. Many of the ecological implications of these disturbances are unknown. Here, we investigate the effect of these forest dissections by experimentally testing dispersal patterns along seismic lines compared with adjacent forests using two proxy materials for wind-dispersed seeds, Typha latifolia seed and goose down feathers. We found that wind speeds were up to seven times higher and 95th percentile seed dispersal distances nearly four times farther on seismic lines compared with undisturbed forests and the corresponding effect of these features on seed dispersal distances can be substantial, potentially facilitating future changes in composition and ecological processes in boreal forests. This raises important considerations for native and invasive species, particularly in the context of climate change and the associated importance of seed movement and migration.

Impacts of design configuration and plants on the functionality of the microbial community of mesocosm-scale constructed wetlands treating ibuprofen.

Microbial degradation is an important pathway during the removal of pharmaceuticals in constructed wetlands (CWs). However, the effects of CW design, plant presence, and different plant species on the microbial community in CWs have not been fully explored. This study aims to investigate the microbial community metabolic function of different types of CWs used to treat ibuprofen via community-level physiological profiling (CLPP) analysis. We studied the interactions between three CW designs (unsaturated, saturated and aerated) and six types of mesocosms (one unplanted and five planted, with Juncus, Typha, Berula, Phragmites and Iris) treating synthetic wastewater. Results show that the microbial activity and metabolic richness found in the interstitial water and biofilm of the unsaturated designs were lower than those of the saturated and aerated designs. Compared to other CW designs, the aerated mesocosms had the highest microbial activity and metabolic richness in the interstitial water, but similar levels of biofilm microbial activity and metabolic richness to the saturated mesocosms. In all three designs, biofilm microbial metabolic richness was significantly higher (p < .05) than that of interstitial water. Both the interstitial water and biofilm microbial community metabolic function were influenced by CW design, plant presence and species, but design had a greater influence than plants. Moreover, canonical correlation analysis indicated that biofilm microbial communities in the three designs played a key role in ibuprofen degradation. The important factors identified as influencing ibuprofen removal were microbial AWCD (average well color development), microbial metabolic richness, and the utilization of amino acids and amine/amides. The enzymes associated with co-metabolism of l-arginine, l-phenyloalanine and putrescine may be linked to ibuprofen transformations. These results provide useful information for optimizing the operational parameters of CWs to improve ibuprofen removal.

Anatomical traits related to stress in high density populations of Typha angustifolia L. (Typhaceae) / Características anatômicas relacionadas ao estresse em altas densidades populacionais de Typha angustifolia L. (Typhaceae)

Abstract Some macrophytes species show a high growth potential, colonizing large areas on aquatic environments. Cattail (Typha angustifolia L.) uncontrolled growth causes several problems to human activities and local biodiversity, but this also may lead to competition and further problems for this species itself. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate anatomical modifications on T. angustifolia plants from different population densities, once it can help to understand its biology. Roots and leaves were collected from natural populations growing under high and low densities. These plant materials were fixed and submitted to usual plant microtechnique procedures. Slides were observed and photographed under light microscopy and images were analyzed in the UTHSCSA-Imagetool software. The experimental design was completely randomized with two treatments and ten replicates, data were submitted to one-way ANOVA and Scott-Knott test at p<0.05. Leaves from low density populations showed higher stomatal density and index. These modifications on stomatal characteristics were more evident on the leaf abaxial surface. Plants from low density populations showed thicker mesophyll and higher proportion of aerenchymal area. Roots from low density populations showed a higher proportion of the vascular cylinder. Whereas, plants from higher density populations showed greater thickness of the endodermis, exodermis, phloem and root cortex. Higher density populations showed a higher proportion of aerenchymal gaps in the root cortex. Therefore, cattail plants from populations growing under high density population show anatomical traits typical of plants under stress, which promotes the development of less functional anatomical modifications to aquatic environments.

Resumo Algumas espécies de macrófitas podem apresentar um elevado potencial de crescimento, colonizando extensas áreas de ambientes aquáticos. O crescimento descontrolado da taboa (Typha angustifolia L.) causa problemas para a biodiversidade local e para atividades antrópicas, isso também pode levar à competição e problemas para a própria espécie. Dessa forma, o objetivo desse trabalho foi verificar se ocorrem modificações anatômicas em plantas de Typha angustifolia L. de diferentes densidades populacionais, uma vez que essas podem auxiliar na compreensão da biologia dessa espécie. Raízes e folhas de T. angustifolia foram coletadas de populações naturais com alto e baixo adensamento populacional. Esse material vegetal foi fixado e submetido a procedimentos usuais de microtécnica vegetal. As lâminas foram observadas e fotografadas em microscopia de luz e as imagens analisadas no software UTHSCSA-Imagetool. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado com dois tratamentos e dez repetições, os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância e ao teste de Scott-Knott para p<0,05. As folhas das populações com baixa densidade demonstraram maior densidade e índice estomáticos. Essas características foram mais evidentes na superfície abaxial em comparação com a superfície adaxial. As plantas de populações com baixo adensamento demonstraram maior espessura do mesofilo e área de aerênquima foliar. As raízes das populações com baixo adensamento demonstraram maior proporção do cilindro vascular. Por outro lado, as plantas de populações com alto adensamento demonstraram maior espessura da endoderme, exoderme, floema e do córtex nas raízes. Populações de alto adensamento demonstraram maior proporção de aerênquima no córtex radicular. Portanto, plantas de taboa sob alto adensamento populacional estão sob estresse o qual promove o desenvolvimento de modificações anatômicas menos funcionais para os ambientes aquáticos.

Salinity and pH effects on floating and emergent macrophytes in a constructed wetland.

Salvinia herzogii, Pistia stratiotes and Eichhornia crassipes (floating species) were the dominant macrophytes in a constructed wetland (CW) over the first years of operation. Later, the emergent Typha domingensis displaced the floating species, becoming dominant. The industrial effluent treated at this CW showed high pH and salinity. The aim of this work was to study the tolerance of floating species and T. domingensis exposed to different pH and salinity treatments. Treatments at pH 8, 9, 10 and 11 and salinities of 2,000; 3,000; 4,000; 6,000; and 8,000 mg L-1 were performed. Floating macrophytes were unable to tolerate the studied pH and salinity ranges, while T. domingensis tolerated higher pH and salinity values. Many industrial effluents commonly show high pH and salinity. T. domingensis demonstrated to be a suitable macrophyte to treat this type of effluents.

Anatomical traits related to stress in high density populations of Typha angustifolia L. (Typhaceae).

Some macrophytes species show a high growth potential, colonizing large areas on aquatic environments. Cattail (Typha angustifolia L.) uncontrolled growth causes several problems to human activities and local biodiversity, but this also may lead to competition and further problems for this species itself. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate anatomical modifications on T. angustifolia plants from different population densities, once it can help to understand its biology. Roots and leaves were collected from natural populations growing under high and low densities. These plant materials were fixed and submitted to usual plant microtechnique procedures. Slides were observed and photographed under light microscopy and images were analyzed in the UTHSCSA-Imagetool software. The experimental design was completely randomized with two treatments and ten replicates, data were submitted to one-way ANOVA and Scott-Knott test at p<0.05. Leaves from low density populations showed higher stomatal density and index. These modifications on stomatal characteristics were more evident on the leaf abaxial surface. Plants from low density populations showed thicker mesophyll and higher proportion of aerenchymal area. Roots from low density populations showed a higher proportion of the vascular cylinder. Whereas, plants from higher density populations showed greater thickness of the endodermis, exodermis, phloem and root cortex. Higher density populations showed a higher proportion of aerenchymal gaps in the root cortex. Therefore, cattail plants from populations growing under high density population show anatomical traits typical of plants under stress, which promotes the development of less functional anatomical modifications to aquatic environments.

Remediation of sewage and industrial effluent using bacterially assisted floating treatment wetlands vegetated with Typha domingensis.

This investigation reports the quantitative assessment of endophyte-assisted floating treatment wetlands (FTWs) for the remediation of sewage and industrial wastewater. Typha domingensis was used to vegetate FTWs that were subsequently inoculated with a consortium of pollutant-degrading and plant growth-promoting endophytic bacteria. T. domingensis, being an aquatic species, holds excellent potential to remediate polluted water. Nonetheless, investigation conducted on Madhuana drain carrying industrial and sewage water from Faisalabad City revealed the percentage reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) to be 87% and 87.5%, respectively, within 96 h on coupling the plant species with a consortium of bacterial endophytes. With the endophytes surviving in plant tissue, maximal reduction was obtained in not only the aforementioned pollution parameters but for other major environmental quality parameters including nutrients (N and P), ions (Na+ and K+), Cl-, and SO42- as well, which showed percentage reductions up to 90%, 39%, 77%, 91.8%, 40%, and 60%, respectively. This significant improvement in polluted wastewater quality treated with the proposed method render it safe to be discharged freely in larger water bodies as per the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) of Pakistan or to be reused safely for irrigation purposes; thus, FTWs provide a sustainable and affordable approach for in situ remediation of sewage and industrial wastewater.

Desiccation of sediments affects assimilate transport within aquatic plants and carbon transfer to microorganisms.

With the projected increase in drought duration and intensity in future, small water bodies, and especially the terrestrial-aquatic interfaces, will be subjected to longer dry periods with desiccation of the sediment. Drought effects on the plant-sediment microorganism carbon continuum may disrupt the tight linkage between plants and microbes which governs sediment carbon and nutrient cycling, thus having a potential negative impact on carbon sequestration of small freshwater ecosystems. However, research on drought effects on the plant-sediment carbon transfer in aquatic ecosystems is scarce. We therefore exposed two emergent aquatic macrophytes, Phragmites australis and Typha latifolia, to a month-long summer drought in a mesocosm experiment. We followed the fate of carbon from leaves to sediment microbial communities with 13 CO2 pulse labelling and microbial phospholipid-derived fatty acid (PLFA) analysis. We found that drought reduced the total amount of carbon allocated to stem tissues but did not delay the transport. We also observed an increase in accumulation of 13 C-labelled sugars in roots and found a reduced incorporation of 13 C into the PLFAs of sediment microorganisms. Drought induced a switch in plant carbon allocation priorities, where stems received less new assimilates leading to reduced starch reserves whilst roots were prioritised with new assimilates, suggesting their use for osmoregulation. There were indications that the reduced carbon transfer from roots to microorganisms was due to the reduction of microbial activity via direct drought effects rather than to a decrease in root exudation or exudate availability.

Increased lead and cadmium tolerance of Typha angustifolia from Huaihe River is associated with enhanced phytochelatin synthesis and improved antioxidative capacity.

Heavy metal contamination of water is an increasing environmental problem worldwide, and the use of aquatic plants for phytoremediation of heavy metal pollution has become an important subject of research. One key to successful phytoremediation is the identification of plants that are efficient at sequestering heavy metals. In this study, we examined the growth and heavy metal accumulation of Typha angustifolia and compared growth characteristics and tolerance mechanisms in plants from the Huaihe and Chaohu Rivers irrigated with different concentrations of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). T. angustifolia from Huaihe River showed enhanced tolerance and accumulation of Pb and Cd and had greater biomass and more vigorous growth than the ecotype from Chaohu River. In addition, higher phytochelatin (PC) content and significantly higher superoxide dismutase and catalase activities were detected in T. angustifolia from Huaihe River than in T. angustifolia from Chaohu River. These findings suggest that high Pb and Cd accumulation and tolerance in T. angustifolia from Chaohu River is associated with its higher PC synthesis and better antioxidative capacity, and that the Huaihe ecotype of T. angustifolia might also be an efficient species for phytoremediation of Pb and Cd in water contaminated by heavy metals.

Synergistic effect of up-flow constructed wetland and microbial fuel cell for simultaneous wastewater treatment and energy recovery.

This study demonstrated a successful operation of up-flow constructed wetland-microbial fuel cell (UFCW-MFC) in wastewater treatment and energy recovery. The goals of this study were to investigate the effect of circuit connection, organic loading rates, and electrode spacing on the performance of wastewater treatment and bioelectricity generation. The average influent of COD, NO3(-) and NH4(+) were 624 mg/L, 142 mg/L, 40 mg/L, respectively and their removal efficiencies (1 day HRT) were 99%, 46%, and 96%, respectively. NO3(-) removal was relatively higher in the closed circuit system due to lower dissolved oxygen in the system. Despite larger electrode spacing, the voltage outputs from Anode 2 (A2) (30 cm) and Anode 3 (A3) (45 cm) were higher than from Anode 1 (A1) (15 cm) as a result of insufficient fuel supply to A1. The maximum power density and Coulombic efficiency were obtained at A2, which were 93 mW/m(3) and 1.42%, respectively.

Lignified and nonlignified fiber cables in the lacunae of Typha angustifolia.

The leaves of Typha are noteworthy in terms of their mechanical properties. We determined the mechanical properties of the fiber cables within the leaf. We found that in vegetative plants, the lignified fiber cables isolated from the leaf sheath and nonlignified fiber cables isolated from the leaf blade of Typha angustifolia differ in their diameter, swelling capacity, Young's modulus, tensile strength, and break load. These differing properties are related to their contributions to stability in the two regions of the leaf.

The inhibition and adaptability of four wetland plant species to high concentration of ammonia wastewater and nitrogen removal efficiency in constructed wetlands.

Four plant species, Typha orientalis, Scirpus validus, Canna indica and Iris tectorum were selected to assess their physiological response and effects on nitrogen and COD removal to high total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) in constructed wetlands. Results showed that high TAN caused decreased relative growth rate, net photosynthetic rate, and leaf transpiration. C. indica and T. orientalis showed higher TAN adaptability than S. validus and I. tectorum. Below TAN of 200 mg L(-1), growth of C. indica and T. orientalis was less affected or even stimulated at TAN range 100-200 mg L(-1). However, S. validus and I. tectorum was obviously suppressed when TAN was above 100 mg L(-1). High TAN generated obvious oxidative stress showing increased proline and malondialdehyde contents, and superoxide dismutase was inhibited. It indicated that the threshold for plant self-bioremediation against high TAN was 200 mg L(-1). What's more, planted CWs showed higher nitrogen and COD removal. Removal rate of C. indica and T. orientalis was higher than S. validus and I. tectorum.

Performance and cost evaluation of constructed wetland for domestic waste water treatment.

Root zone treatment through constructed wetlands is an engineered method of purifying wastewater. The aim of the present research was to study the potential of wetland plants Phragmites and Typha in treatment of wastewater and to compare the cost of constructed wetlands with that of conventional treatment systems. A pilot wetland unit of size 2x1x0.9 m was constructed in the campus. 3x3 rows of plants were transplanted into the pilot unit and subjected to wastewater from the hostels and other campus buildings. The raw wastewater and treated wastewater were collected periodically and tested for Total nitrogen (TN),Total Phosphorous (TP), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). It was observed that this pilot unit reduced the concentrations of TN, TP, BOD and COD by 76, 73, 83 and 86%, respectively, on an average. Root zone system achieved standards for tertiary treatment with low operating costs, low maintenance costs, enhance the landscape, provide a natural habitat for birds, and did not emit any odour.