Soft x-ray power diagnostics for fusion experiments at NIF, Omega, and Z facilities.

In this Review Article, we discuss a range of soft x-ray power diagnostics at inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and pulsed-power fusion facilities. This Review Article describes current hardware and analysis approaches and covers the following methods: x-ray diode arrays, bolometers, transmission grating spectrometers, and associated crystal spectrometers. These systems are fundamental for the diagnosis of ICF experiments, providing a wide range of critical parameters for the evaluation of fusion performance.

A 2-4 keV multilayer mirrored channel for the NIF Dante system.

During inertial confinement fusion experiments at the National Ignition Facility (NIF), a capsule filled with deuterium and tritium (DT) gas, surrounded by a DT ice layer and a high-density carbon ablator, is driven to the temperature and densities required to initiate fusion. In the indirect method, 2 MJ of NIF laser light heats the inside of a gold hohlraum to a radiation temperature of 300 eV; thermal x rays from the hohlraum interior couple to the capsule and create a central hotspot at tens of millions degrees Kelvin and a density of 100-200 g/cm3. During the laser interaction with the gold wall, m-band x rays are produced at ∼2.5 keV; these can penetrate into the capsule and preheat the ablator and DT fuel. Preheat can impact instability growth rates in the ablation front and at the fuel-ablator interface. Monitoring the hohlraum x-ray spectrum throughout the implosion is, therefore, critical; for this purpose, a Multilayer Mirror (MLM) with flat response in the 2-4 keV range has been installed in the NIF 37° Dante calorimeter. Precision engineering and x-ray calibration of components mean the channel will report 2-4 keV spectral power with an uncertainty of ±8.7%.

Diffraction properties of cylindrically bent KAP crystals in energy range of 2.3-7.5 keV using synchrotron radiation.

Verification of physics models and computer simulations are heavily reliant upon the accuracy of experimental measurements. Calibration of instrument responses becomes an important step to achieve this goal. This paper presents systematic studies of bent potassium acid phthalate (KAP) crystals using Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories, Advanced Light Source, beamline 9.3.1 in the energy range of 2.3 to 7.5 keV. A set of KAP crystals, gradually bent from flat up to a 50.8 mm cylindrical curvature. The measured integrated reflectivity for this set of KAP crystals shows good agreement with the X-ray Oriented Program (XOP) calculations when adjusting the Debye-Waller temperature factor and using the multilamellar model in the calculations. Significant differences in rocking curve profiles were observed between experimental measurements and theory. A forward convolution model and software code were developed to include experimental parameters, allowing the investigation of the difference between measurements and calculations. After considering the experimental parameters, good agreements were obtained for the rocking curve profiles for all bending radii with a unique set of parameters. Our results show that XOP can be a useful and reliable tool to predict performance of cylindrically bent KAP crystals in this energy range.

High-Precision Determination of Oxygen K_{α} Transition Energy Excludes Incongruent Motion of Interstellar Oxygen.

We demonstrate a widely applicable technique to absolutely calibrate the energy scale of x-ray spectra with experimentally well-known and accurately calculable transitions of highly charged ions, allowing us to measure the K-shell Rydberg spectrum of molecular O_{2} with 8 meV uncertainty. We reveal a systematic ∼450 meV shift from previous literature values, and settle an extraordinary discrepancy between astrophysical and laboratory measurements of neutral atomic oxygen, the latter being calibrated against the aforementioned O_{2} literature values. Because of the widespread use of such, now deprecated, references, our method impacts on many branches of x-ray absorption spectroscopy. Moreover, it potentially reduces absolute uncertainties there to below the meV level.

Deep-core photoabsorption and photofragmentation of tetrachloromethane near the Cl K-edge.

The fragmentation of the tetrachloromethane molecule following core-shell photoexcitation and photoionization in the neighborhood of the chlorine K-edge has been studied by using time-of-flight mass spectroscopy and monochromatic synchrotron radiation. Branching ratios for ionic dissociation were derived for all the detected ions, which are informative of the decay dynamics and photofragmentation patterns of the core-excited species. In addition, the absorption yield has been measured with a new assignment of the spectral features. The structure that appears above the Cl 1s ionization potential in the photoionization spectrum has been ascribed to the existing connection with electron-CCl4 scattering through experimental data and calculations for low-energy electron-molecule cross sections. In addition, the production of the doubly ionized Cl fragment, Cl2+, as a function of the photon energy has been analysed in the terms of a simple and an appealing physical picture, the half-collision model.

Measurement and models of bent KAP(001) crystal integrated reflectivity and resolution (invited).

The Advanced Light Source beamline-9.3.1 x-rays are used to calibrate the rocking curve of bent potassium acid phthalate (KAP) crystals in the 2.3-4.5 keV photon-energy range. Crystals are bent on a cylindrically convex substrate with a radius of curvature ranging from 2 to 9 in. and also including the flat case to observe the effect of bending on the KAP spectrometric properties. As the bending radius increases, the crystal reflectivity converges to the mosaic crystal response. The X-ray Oriented Programs (xop) multi-lamellar model of bent crystals is used to model the rocking curve of these crystals and the calibration data confirm that a single model is adequate to reproduce simultaneously all measured integrated reflectivities and rocking-curve FWHM for multiple radii of curvature in both 1st and 2nd order of diffraction.

Positive and negative ion formation in deep-core excited molecules: S 1s excitation in dimethyl sulfoxide.

The photo-fragmentation of the dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) molecule was studied using synchrotron radiation and a magnetic mass spectrometer. The total cationic yield spectrum was recorded in the photon energy region around the sulfur K edge. The sulfur composition of the highest occupied molecular orbital's and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital's in the DMSO molecule has been obtained using both ab initio and density functional theory methods. Partial cation and anion-yield measurements were obtained in the same energy range. An intense resonance is observed at 2475.4 eV. Sulfur atomic ions present a richer structure around this resonant feature, as compared to other fragment ions. The yield curves are similar for most of the other ionic species, which we interpret as due to cascade Auger processes leading to multiply charged species which then undergo Coulomb explosion. The anions S(-), C(-), and O(-) are observed for the first time in deep-core-level excitation of DMSO.

Partial-ion-yield studies of SOCl2 following x-ray absorption around the S and Cl K edges.

We present a series of photoabsorption and partial-ion-yield experiments on thionyl chloride, SOCl(2), at both the sulfur and chlorine K edges. The photoabsorption results exhibit better resolution than previously published data, leading to alternate spectral assignments for some of the features, particularly in the Rydberg-series region. Based on measured fragmentation patterns, we suggest the LUMO, of a(') character, is delocalized over the entire molecular skeleton. Unusual behavior of the S(2 +) fragment hints at a relatively localized bond rupture (the S-O bond below the S K edge and the S-Cl bonds below the Cl K edge) following excitation to some of the higher lying intermediate states.

A new method to derive electronegativity from resonant inelastic x-ray scattering.

Electronegativity is a well-known property of atoms and substituent groups. Because there is no direct way to measure it, establishing a useful scale for electronegativity often entails correlating it to another chemical parameter; a wide variety of methods have been proposed over the past 80 years to do just that. This work reports a new approach that connects electronegativity to a spectroscopic parameter derived from resonant inelastic x-ray scattering. The new method is demonstrated using a series of chlorine-containing compounds, focusing on the Cl 2p(-1)LUMO(1) electronic states reached after Cl 1s → LUMO core excitation and subsequent KL radiative decay. Based on an electron-density analysis of the LUMOs, the relative weights of the Cl 2p(z) atomic orbital contributing to the Cl 2p(3/2) molecular spin-orbit components are shown to yield a linear electronegativity scale consistent with previous approaches.

Thomson-resonant interference effects in elastic x-ray scattering near the Cl K edge of HCl.

We experimentally observed interference effects in elastic x-ray scattering from gas-phase HCl in the vicinity of the Cl K edge. Comparison to theory identifies these effects as interference effects between non-resonant elastic Thomson scattering and resonant Raman scattering. The results indicate the non-resonant Thomson and resonant Raman contributions are of comparable strength. The measurements also exhibit strong polarization dependence, allowing an easy identification of the resonant and non-resonant contributions.

Marine downscaling of a future climate scenario in the North Sea and possible effects on dinoflagellate harmful algal blooms.

Two hydrodynamic and ecological models were used to investigate the effects of climate change-according to the IPCC A1b emission scenario - on the primary productivity of the North Sea and on harmful algal blooms. Both models were forced with atmospheric fields from a regional downscaling of General Circulation Models to compare two sets of 20-year simulations representative of present climate (1984-2004) conditions and of the 2040s. Both models indicated a general warming of the North Sea by up to 0.8°C and a slight freshening by the 2040s. The models suggested that the eastern North Sea would be subjected to more temperature and salinity changes than the western part. In addition, the ecological modules of the models indicated that the warming up of the sea would result in a slightly earlier spring bloom. The one model that also computes the distribution of four different phytoplankton groups suggests an increase in the abundance of dinoflagellates, whereas the abundance of diatoms, flagellates and Phaeocystis sp. remains comparable to current levels, or decrease. Assuming that Dinophysis spp. would experience a similar increase in abundance as the modelled group of dinoflagellates, it is hypothesised that blooms of Dinophysis spp. may occur more frequently in the North Sea by 2040. However, implications for shellfish toxicity remain unclear.

Resonant inelastic x-ray scattering of methyl chloride at the chlorine K edge.

We present a combined experimental and theoretical study of isolated CH(3)Cl molecules using resonant inelastic x-ray scattering (RIXS). The high-resolution spectra allow extraction of information about nuclear dynamics in the core-excited molecule. Polarization-resolved RIXS spectra exhibit linear dichroism in the spin-orbit intensities, a result interpreted as due to chemical environment and singlet-triplet exchange in the molecular core levels. From analysis of the polarization-resolved data, Cl 2p(x, y) and 2p(z) electronic populations can be determined.

K-shell x-ray spectroscopy of atomic nitrogen.

Absolute K-shell photoionization cross sections for atomic nitrogen have been obtained from both experiment and state-of-the-art theoretical techniques. Because of the difficulty of creating a target of neutral atomic nitrogen, no high-resolution K-edge spectroscopy measurements have been reported for this important atom. Interplay between theory and experiment enabled identification and characterization of the strong 1s → np resonance features throughout the threshold region. An experimental value of 409.64±0.02 eV was determined for the K-shell binding energy.

Sulfur K-edge photofragmentation of ethylene sulfide.

We have investigated the photofragmentation properties of the three-membered ring heterocyclic molecule ethylene sulfide or thiirane, C(2)H(4)S, by time-of-flight mass spectroscopy. Positive ions have been collected as a function of photon energy around the S K ionization threshold. Branching ratios were derived for all detected ions, which are informative of the decay dynamics and photofragmentation patterns of the core-excited species. We present a new assignment of the spectral features around the S K-edge.

Fragmentation properties of three-membered heterocyclic molecules by partial ion yield spectroscopy: C(2)H(4)O and C(2)H(4)S.

We investigated the photofragmentation properties of two three-membered ring heterocyclic molecules, C(2)H(4)O and C(2)H(4)S, by total and partial ion yield spectroscopy. Positive and negative ions have been collected as a function of photon energy around the C 1s and O 1s ionization thresholds in C(2)H(4)O, and around the S 2p and C 1s thresholds in C(2)H(4)S. We underline similarities and differences between these two analogous systems. We present a new assignment of the spectral features around the C K-edge and the sulfur L(2,3) edges in C(2)H(4)S. In both systems, we observe high fragmentation efficiency leading to positive and negative ions when exciting these molecules at resonances involving core-to-Rydberg transitions. The system, with one electron in an orbital far from the ionic core, relaxes preferentially by spectator Auger decay, and the resulting singly charged ion with two valence holes and one electron in an outer diffuse orbital can remain in excited states more susceptible to dissociation. A state-selective fragmentation pattern is analyzed in C(2)H(4)S which leads to direct production of S(2+) following the decay of virtual-orbital excitations to final states above the double-ionization threshold.

Partial ion yield spectroscopy around the Cl 2p and C 1s ionization thresholds in CF3Cl.

We present a partial ion yield experiment on freon 13, CF(3)Cl, excited in the vicinity of the C 1s and Cl 2p ionization thresholds. We have collected a large amount of cationic fragments and a few anionic fragments at both edges. We have observed a strong intensity dependence of Rydberg transitions with ion fragment size for the CF(n)Cl(+) and CF(n)(+)/F(+) (n=0-3) series at both the Cl 2p and C 1s ionization edges. Selectivity in the fragmentation processes involving the C-Cl and C-F bonds are highlighted by the intensities of the C 1s to lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) and LUMO+1 transitions measured on the CF(n)Cl(+) and CF(n)(+) yields. Equally, by comparison with their cation counterpart, we discuss possible bond-length dependence for the anion formation at the carbon 1s edge.

Linear dichroism in resonant inelastic x-ray scattering to molecular spin-orbit states.

Polarization-dependent resonant inelastic x-ray scattering (RIXS) is shown to be a new probe of molecular-field effects on the electronic structure of isolated molecules. A combined experimental and theoretical analysis explains the linear dichroism observed in Cl 2p RIXS following Cl 1s excitation in HCl and CF3Cl as due to molecular-field effects, including singlet-triplet exchange, indicating polarized-RIXS provides a direct probe of spin-orbit-state populations applicable to any molecule.

Photofragmentation of SiF4 upon Si 2p and F 1s core excitation: cation and anion yield spectroscopy.

We have studied the fragmentation dynamics of core-excited SiF4 by means of soft-x-ray photoexcitation and partial positive and negative ion yield measurements around the Si L2,3-shell and F K-shell ionization thresholds. All detectable ionic fragments are reported and we observe significant differences between the various partial ion yields near the Si 2p threshold. The differences are similar to our previous results from CH3Cl showing more extended fragmentation in correspondence to transitions to Rydberg states. At variance with smaller systems, we observe negative ion production in the shape resonance region. This can be related to the possibility in a relatively large system to dissipate positive charge over several channels.

Design and performance of a curved-crystal x-ray emission spectrometer.

A curved-crystal x-ray emission spectrometer has been designed and built to measure 2-5 keV x-ray fluorescence resulting from a core-level excitation of gas phase species. The spectrometer can rotate 180 degrees, allowing detection of emitted x rays with variable polarization angles, and is capable of collecting spectra over a wide energy range (20 eV wide with 0.5 eV resolution at the Cl K edge) simultaneously. In addition, the entire experimental chamber can be rotated about the incident-radiation axis by nearly 360 degrees while maintaining vacuum, permitting measurements of angular distributions of emitted x rays.

Fragmentation of methyl chloride studied by partial positive and negative ion-yield spectroscopy.

The authors present partial-ion-yield experiments on the methyl chloride molecule excited in the vicinity of the Cl2p and C1s inner shells. A large number of fragments, cations produced by dissociation or recombination processes, as well as anionic species, have been detected. Although the spectra exhibit different intensity distributions depending on the core-excited atom, general observations include strong site-selective fragmentation along the C-Cl bond axis and a strong intensity dependence of transitions involving Rydberg series on fragment size.