Drug-resistant oral candidiasis in patients with HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Oral candidiasis (OC) is a prevalent opportunistic infection in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. The increasing resistance to antifungal agents in HIV-positive individuals suffering from OC raised concerns. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence of drug-resistant OC in HIV-positive patients. METHODS: Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Embase databases were systematically searched for eligible articles up to November 30, 2023. Studies reporting resistance to antifungal agents in Candida species isolated from HIV-positive patients with OC were included. Baseline characteristics, clinical features, isolated Candida species, and antifungal resistance were independently extracted by two reviewers. The pooled prevalence with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated using the random effect model or fixed effect model. RESULTS: Out of the 1942 records, 25 studies consisting of 2564 Candida species entered the meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of resistance to the antifungal agents was as follows: ketoconazole (25.5%, 95% CI: 15.1-35.8%), fluconazole (24.8%, 95% CI: 17.4-32.1%), 5-Flucytosine (22.9%, 95% CI: -13.7-59.6%), itraconazole (20.0%, 95% CI: 10.0-26.0%), voriconazole (20.0%, 95% CI: 1.9-38.0%), miconazole (15.0%, 95% CI: 5.1-26.0%), clotrimazole (13.4%, 95% CI: 2.3-24.5%), nystatin (4.9%, 95% CI: -0.05-10.3%), amphotericin B (2.9%, 95% CI: 0.5-5.3%), and caspofungin (0.1%, 95% CI: -0.3-0.6%). Furthermore, there were high heterogeneities among almost all included studies regarding the resistance to different antifungal agents (I2 > 50.00%, P < 0.01), except for caspofungin (I2 = 0.00%, P = 0.65). CONCLUSIONS: Our research revealed that a significant number of Candida species found in HIV-positive patients with OC were resistant to azoles and 5-fluocytosine. However, most of the isolates were susceptible to nystatin, amphotericin B, and caspofungin. This suggests that initial treatments for OC, such as azoles, may not be effective. In such cases, healthcare providers may need to consider prescribing alternative treatments like polyenes and caspofungin. REGISTRATION: The study protocol was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews as PROSPERO (Number: CRD42024497963).

Critical illness due to infection in people living with HIV.

People living with HIV comprise a substantial number of the patients admitted to intensive care. This number varies according to geography, but all areas of the world are affected. In lower-income and middle-income countries, the majority of intensive care unit (ICU) admissions relate to infections, whereas in high-income countries, they often involve HIV-associated non-communicable diseases diagnoses. Management of infections potentially resulting in admission to the ICU in people living with HIV include sepsis, respiratory infections, COVID-19, cytomegalovirus infection, and CNS infections, both opportunistic and non-opportunistic. It is crucial to know which antiretroviral therapy (ART) is appropriate, when is the correct time to administer it, and to be aware of any safety concerns and potential drug interactions with ART. Although ART is necessary for controlling HIV infections, it can also cause difficulties relevant to the ICU such as immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome, and issues associated with ART administration in patients with gastrointestinal dysfunction on mechanical ventilation. Managing infection in people with HIV in the ICU is complex, requiring collaboration from a multidisciplinary team knowledgeable in both the management of the specific infection and the use of ART. This team should include intensivists, infectious disease specialists, pharmacists, and microbiologists to ensure optimal outcomes for patients.

Testing novel strategies for patients hospitalised with HIV-associated disseminated tuberculosis (NewStrat-TB): protocol for a randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: HIV-associated tuberculosis (TB) contributes disproportionately to global tuberculosis mortality. Patients hospitalised at the time of the diagnosis of HIV-associated disseminated TB are typically severely ill and have a high mortality risk despite initiation of tuberculosis treatment. The objective of the study is to assess the safety and efficacy of both intensified TB treatment (high dose rifampicin plus levofloxacin) and immunomodulation with corticosteroids as interventions to reduce early mortality in hospitalised patients with HIV-associated disseminated TB. METHODS: This is a phase III randomised controlled superiority trial, evaluating two interventions in a 2 × 2 factorial design: (1) high dose rifampicin (35 mg/kg/day) plus levofloxacin added to standard TB treatment for the first 14 days versus standard tuberculosis treatment and (2) adjunctive corticosteroids (prednisone 1.5 mg/kg/day) versus identical placebo for the first 14 days of TB treatment. The study population is HIV-positive patients diagnosed with disseminated TB (defined as being positive by at least one of the following assays: urine Alere LAM, urine Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra or blood Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra) during a hospital admission. The primary endpoint is all-cause mortality at 12 weeks comparing, first, patients receiving intensified TB treatment to standard of care and, second, patients receiving corticosteroids to those receiving placebo. Analysis of the primary endpoint will be by intention to treat. Secondary endpoints include all-cause mortality at 2 and 24 weeks. Safety and tolerability endpoints include hepatoxicity evaluations and corticosteroid-related adverse events. DISCUSSION: Disseminated TB is characterised by a high mycobacterial load and patients are often critically ill at presentation, with features of sepsis, which carries a high mortality risk. Interventions that reduce this high mycobacterial load or modulate associated immune activation could potentially reduce mortality. If found to be safe and effective, the interventions being evaluated in this trial could be easily implemented in clinical practice. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04951986. Registered on 7 July 2021 https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04951986.

A complex case study: coexistence of multi-drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis, HBV-related liver failure, and disseminated cryptococcal infection in an AIDS patient.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection can cause liver failure, while individuals with Acquired Immunodeficiency Virus Disease (AIDS) are highly susceptible to various opportunistic infections, which can occur concurrently. The treatment process is further complicated by the potential occurrence of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS), which presents significant challenges and contributes to elevated mortality rates. CASE PRESENTATION: The 50-year-old male with a history of chronic hepatitis B and untreated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection presented to the hospital with a mild cough and expectoration, revealing multi-drug resistant pulmonary tuberculosis (MDR-PTB), which was confirmed by XpertMTB/RIF PCR testing and tuberculosis culture of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). The patient was treated with a regimen consisting of linezolid, moxifloxacin, cycloserine, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol for tuberculosis, as well as a combination of bictegravir/tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine (BIC/TAF/FTC) for HBV and HIV viral suppression. After three months of treatment, the patient discontinued all medications, leading to hepatitis B virus reactivation and subsequent liver failure. During the subsequent treatment for AIDS, HBV, and drug-resistant tuberculosis, the patient developed disseminated cryptococcal disease. The patient's condition worsened during treatment with liposomal amphotericin B and fluconazole, which was ultimately attributed to IRIS. Fortunately, the patient achieved successful recovery after appropriate management. CONCLUSION: Enhancing medical compliance is crucial for AIDS patients, particularly those co-infected with HBV, to prevent HBV reactivation and subsequent liver failure. Furthermore, conducting a comprehensive assessment of potential infections in patients before resuming antiviral therapy is essential to prevent the occurrence of IRIS. Early intervention plays a pivotal role in improving survival rates.

Disseminated Mycobacterium avium Infection with Different Clinical Presentation in Two Human Immunodeficiency Virus-positive Patients.

ABSTRACT: Microorganisms belonging to the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) are ubiquitous in the environment, but only a minority of infected persons develop disease. An underlying lung disease or immune deficiency is a prerequisite for clinical manifestation. However, disseminated MAC disease primarily manifests in people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the severe immunodeficiency stage with a whole host of clinical symptoms. We present two cases of disseminated M. avium infection in people living with HIV in the stage of severe immunodeficiency. Both patients exhibited distinct disease progression, with the absence of pulmonary symptoms being a common characteristic. The first patient predominantly experienced high fever, accompanied by diarrhea and severe anemia. The normothermia in the second patient was incongruent with the presence of marked cachexia, severe abdominal pain, and magnetic resonance imaging evidence of abdominal lymph node involvement. The causative agent was isolated from both sputum and stools. The patients underwent treatment that comprised aminoglycoside, macrolide, ethambutol, and rifampicin. Although both patients achieved optimal viral suppression of HIV, the immunologic response to antiretroviral therapy was suboptimal. The first patient died in the setting of severe immunodeficiency due to the development of decompensated liver cirrhosis, while the second patient demonstrated a slight reverse course of the disease.

Advances in Antiretroviral Therapy for Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Associated Tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis is one of the most common opportunistic infections and a prominent cause of death in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, in spite of near-universal access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and tuberculosis preventive therapy. For patients with active tuberculosis but not yet receiving ART, starting ART after anti-tuberculosis treatment can complicate clinical management due to drug toxicities, drug-drug interactions and immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) events. The timing of ART initiation has a crucial impact on treatment outcomes, especially for patients with tuberculous meningitis. The principles of ART in patients with HIV-associated tuberculosis are specific and relatively complex in comparison to patients with other opportunistic infections or cancers. In this review, we summarize the current progress in the timing of ART initiation, ART regimens, drug-drug interactions between anti-tuberculosis and antiretroviral agents, and IRIS.

Comparative efficacy and safety of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia prophylaxis regimens for people living with HIV: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) is a common opportunistic infection among people living with HIV (PWH), particularly among new and untreated cases. Several regimens are available for the prophylaxis of PCP, including trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX), dapsone-based regimens (DBRs), aerosolized pentamidine (AP), and atovaquone. OBJECTIVES: To compare the efficacy and safety of PCP prophylaxis regimens in PWH by network meta-analysis. METHODS: DATA SOURCES: Embase, MEDLINE, and CENTRAL from inception to June 21, 2023. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Comparative randomized controlled trials (RCTs). PARTICIPANTS: PWH. INTERVENTIONS: Regimens for PCP prophylaxis either compared head-to-head or versus no treatment/placebo. ASSESSMENT OF RISK OF BIAS: Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for RCTs 2. METHODS OF DATA SYNTHESIS: Title or abstract and full-text screening and data extraction were performed in duplicate by two independent reviewers. Data on PCP incidence, all-cause mortality, and discontinuation due to toxicity were pooled and ranked by network meta-analysis. Subgroup analyses of primary versus secondary prophylaxis, by year, and by dosage were performed. RESULTS: A total of 26 RCTs, comprising 55 treatment arms involving 7516 PWH were included. For the prevention of PCP, TMP-SMX was ranked the most favourable agent and was superior to DBRs (risk ratio [RR] = 0.54; 95% CI, 0.36-0.83) and AP (RR = 0.53; 95% CI, 0.36-0.77). TMP-SMX was also the only agent with a mortality benefit compared with no treatment/placebo (RR = 0.79; 95% CI, 0.64-0.98). However, TMP-SMX was also ranked as the most toxic agent with a greater risk of discontinuation than DBRs (RR = 1.25; 95% CI, 1.01-1.54) and AP (7.20; 95% CI, 5.37-9.66). No significant differences in PCP prevention or mortality were detected among the other regimens. The findings remained consistent within subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: TMP-SMX is the most effective agent for PCP prophylaxis in PWH and the only agent to confer a mortality benefit; consequently, it should continue to be recommended as the first-line agent. Further studies are necessary to determine the optimal dosing of TMP-SMX to maximize efficacy and minimize toxicity.

Disseminated mycobacterium genavense infection with central nervous system involvement in an HIV patient: a case report and literature review.

BACKGROUND: Immunodeficient patients, particularly HIV patients, are at risk of opportunistic infections. Nontuberculous mycobacteria can cause severe complications in immunodeficient patients. CASE PRESENTATION: We describe a 57-year-old HIV patient, primarily presented with coughs and constitutional symptoms, with a unique Mycobacterium genavense abdominal, pulmonary, and central nervous system infection, accompanied by intracranial masses. CONCLUSION: The diagnosis of NTM, including M. genavense, must always be considered by clinicians in immunodeficient patients, especially those with HIV, who have a compromised immune system.

HIV-associated disseminated cryptococcosis-An unusual clinical and diagnostic picture with successful cure by single dose liposomal amphotericin B treatment.

BACKGROUND: Cryptococcosis is an invasive, opportunistic fungal infection seen especially in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients. Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) is the second leading cause of mortality in HIV patients. We report a case of disseminated cryptococcosis presenting with altered mental status in a newly diagnosed HIV infection. METHODS AND RESULTS: A 50-year-old with a short history of altered mental sensorium and a history of low-grade fever and weight loss for few months presented at a tertiary care hospital in North India. He was detected positive for HIV-1. Cryptococcal antigen (CRAG) was positive in Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and negative in serum. The fungal culture in CSF was sterile while the fungal blood culture grew Cryptococcus neoformans. The patient was treated with single high-dose Liposomal Amphotericin B (LAmB) therapy followed by Fluconazole and Flucytosine for the next two weeks followed by fluconazole daily for consolidation and maintenance therapy. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) was started 4 weeks after induction therapy. After 6 months, the patient is doing fine. CONCLUSION: Single dose LAmB along with the backbone of fluconazole and flucytosine appears promising in disseminated cryptococcal infection in HIV-infected individuals.

Cytomegalovirus infection among people living with HIV in Sweden: Case profiles, treatment strategies and patient outcomes at Karolinska University Hospital 2010-2020.

OBJECTIVES: In countries with access to early antiretroviral treatment (ART), opportunistic infections caused by cytomegalovirus (CMV) in people living with HIV (PLWH) are becoming increasingly rare. As potential complications are severe, it is critical to remain aware of this important diagnosis. However, clinical characteristics and prognosis of CMV infection in PLWH in the era of modern ART have not been well described. METHODS: Here, we compiled the clinical presentation, management and outcome of CMV infection in PLWH treated at the infectious diseases clinic of Karolinska University Hospital during 2010-2020. RESULTS: We identified 51 cases of active CMV infection, based on detection of CMV-DNA, mainly diagnosed in patients with CD4 T-cell count <200 cells/µL (86%). Median time from HIV diagnosis to detection of CMV infection was 16 days. In 20 cases (39%), CMV infection was symptomatic with retinitis identified as a manifestation in 70% of cases. Symptomatic CMV infection was treated for 73 (20-313) days upon diagnosis, mostly using valganciclovir. One-year mortality was 22% and was associated with longer time to ART initiation from HIV diagnosis and with comorbidities, but not with CMV-DNA levels or CD4 count. Immune reconstitution was not significantly compromised in patients with symptomatic CMV, although CD4/8 ratio tended to be lower in patients with systemic CMV infection. CONCLUSIONS: Retinitis remains the most common manifestation of symptomatic CMV infection in PLWH. Recognizing CMV infection is important, especially in the management of 'late presenters'. Adequate duration of antiviral therapy and appropriate follow-up must be ensured to avoid complications.

Clinical characteristics, diagnosis, treatment and outcomes of patients living with HIV and co-infected with tuberculosis and histoplasmosis: a 5-y retrospective case series.

BACKGROUND: In Latin America, tuberculosis (TB) and histoplasmosis are two of the most frequent opportunistic infections affecting people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). However, there are limited data on the clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with concurrent TB and histoplasmosis infections. METHODS: This was a retrospective observational study to describe the clinical, epidemiological and laboratory characteristics and outcomes of 21 patients living with HIV (PLHIV) who were diagnosed with concurrent histoplasmosis and TB between 2017 and 2021 in Guatemala City, Guatemala. RESULTS: Most patients were male and were newly diagnosed with HIV. All patients had advanced HIV disease (AHD). They presented with a median CD4 count of 20 cells/µl. The most common symptoms reported by the patients were fever, weight loss, cough and diarrhoea. Twelve patients died within 6 months of baseline evaluation, for a mortality rate of 57.1%. CONCLUSIONS: PLHIV with concurrent TB and histoplasmosis infections are characterised by AHD, predominantly presenting with disseminated forms of these infections and with unspecific symptoms and signs. This evidence calls for early HIV and opportunistic infection screening and insights into the challenges and opportunities for the efficient diagnostic and therapeutic management of patients with AHD with concurrent histoplasmosis and TB infections.

HIV and skin infections.

HIV infection alters the skin microbiome and predisposes to a wide range of cutaneous infections, from atypical presentations of common skin infections to severe disseminated infections involving the skin that are AIDS-defining illnesses. Bacterial infection of the skin, most commonly caused by Staphylococcus aureus, occurs frequently and can result in bacteremia. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infections that are usually localized to the skin may disseminate, and guidance on the treatment of these infections is limited. Herpes simplex can be severe, and less common presentations such as herpetic sycosis and herpes vegetans have been reported. Severe herpes zoster, including disseminated infection, requires intravenous antiviral treatment. Viral warts can be particularly difficult to treat, and in atypical or treatment-resistant cases a biopsy should be considered. Superficial candidosis occurs very commonly in people living with HIV, and antifungal resistance is an increasing problem in non-albicans Candida species. Systemic infections carry a poor prognosis. In tropical settings the endemic mycoses including histoplasmosis are a problem for people living with HIV, and opportunistic infections can affect those with advanced HIV in all parts of the world. Most cutaneous infections can develop or worsen as a result of immune reconstitution in the weeks to months after starting antiretroviral therapy. Direct microscopic examination of clinical material can facilitate rapid diagnosis and treatment initiation, although culture is important to provide microbiological confirmation and guide treatment.

[Role of glucocorticoids in pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with non-HIV infection/AIDS (HIV/AIDS) and related mechanisms].

Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) is an opportunistic infection caused by Pneumocystis carinii and is the most common fungal infection in HIV/AIDS patients. With the routine use of antiretroviral therapy (ART), the incidence of PCP infection in HIV/AIDS patients has decreased and the prognosis has improved significantly. On the other hand, the use of chemoradiotherapy and immunotherapy in patients with cancer, post-transplantation and autoimmune diseases are increasing dramatically, which has led to a similar increase in the incidence of PCP in these non-HIV/AIDS patients. There is a global shift in research on PCP from HIV-infected co-infected PCP (HIV-PCP) to non-HIV-infected co-infected PCP. The clinical course of non-HIV-PCP is rapid and severe, and the morbidity and mortality rates are higher than those of HIV-PCP. Studies have shown that 90% of non-HIV-PCP patients have a history of glucocorticoid use prior to infection, such as in patients with hematologic malignancies, solid organ transplants, and rheumatic diseases, and that long-term high-dose glucocorticoid use is an important risk for PCP susceptibility. Clinical practice has shown that PCP often occurs during the tapering of glucocorticoids, and a higher proportion of patients develop diffuse pulmonary lesions and, in more severe cases suffer from life-threatening acute respiratory failure. The pathogenesis of non-HIV infections associated with PCP is not yet clarified, and there is a lack of effective therapeutic practices that require further investigation.

Recurrent Cryptococcal Meningitis in a Late Presenter of HIV: A Rare Case Report and Review of Literature.

BACKGROUND The highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) and the primary prophylaxis in newly diagnosed people living with HIV (PLHIV) have reduced the incidence of opportunistic infections such as cryptococcal meningitis (CM). Relapse of CM is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The aim of the present case presentation is to report the clinical progress relapse of CM in a man who was a late presenter PLHIV, 1 year after ART initiation with increased CD4 cell count, undetectable viral load, and excellent compliance after disruption of secondary antifungal prophylaxis. CASE REPORT One year after initial diagnosis of HIV and CM, the patient had no neurological or other symptoms, and viral suppression and increased CD4 cell count were achieved. After the completion of 12 months of secondary prophylaxis with fluconazole, an episode of partial seizure with secondary generalization occurred, followed by a short-term memory loss. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) indicated a focal lesion in right frontal-parietal brain region. Lumbar puncture was conducted and Cryptococcus neoformans non-resistant to fluconazole was isolated. He received antiepileptic treatment, induction antifungal treatment with liposomal amphotericin and fluconazole, consolidation treatment with fluconazole, and secondary prophylaxis with fluconazole, as in the first episode of CM. One year after the relapse, antiepileptic treatment and secondary prophylaxis with fluconazole continues and no new episode has been reported. The diagnosis of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS)-related relapse of CM cannot be excluded. CONCLUSIONS Further studies are needed for the evaluation of parameters such as duration of secondary prophylaxis and treatment options for induction and consolidation therapy to reduce the relapse rate of CM.

The 'pulmonary diseases spectrum' in HIV infected children.

Despite advances in diagnostic, therapeutic and preventive strategies for HIV, pulmonary diseases continue to be the major cause of morbidity and mortality in infants and children infected with HIV. With effective programs to prevent perinatal HIV-1 transmission to early diagnosis in infants, we have seen a substantial decline in paediatric HIV incidence. Early initiation of Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART) in all HIV infected children coupled with consistent use of Pneumocystis prophylaxis in all HIV exposed/infected children under 5 years of age has considerably reduced associated infections overall and respiratory infections in particular. In developing countries already burdened with poverty, malnutrition, suboptimal immunization coverage and limited access to health care and treatment, acute and chronic HIV-associated respiratory disease remain a major cause for concern. Prevention of severe respiratory infections in advanced HIV disease among children consists mostly of rapid and optimal HAART initiation & continuation, preventing severe TB disease with BCG and TB preventive treatment, preventing Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia with cotrimoxazole prophylaxis and administering age-appropriate vaccinations and catch-up vaccines as per National Immunization schedule.

Coexistence of Cryptococcal Fungemia and Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia in an HIV-Infected Patient: A Case Report.

INTRODUCTION: Opportunistic infections caused by bacteria and fungi are common in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. Cryptococcus neoformans and Pneumocystis jirovecii are the most common opportunistic infections in immunosuppressed individuals, but their coexistence is rare. To our knowledge, this is the first case presented in Turkey involving the coexistence of C.neoformans fungemia and P.jirovecii pneumonia. CASE PRESENTATION: A 26-year-old male patient presented with a cachectic appearance, cough, sputum, weakness, shortness of breath, and a weight loss of 15 kg in the last three months. It was learned that the patient was diagnosed with HIV three years ago, did not go to follow-ups, and did not use the treatments. CD4 cell count was 7/mm3 (3.4%), CD8 cell count was 100 (54%) mm3, and HIV viral load was 5670 copies/mL. In thorax computed tomography (CT), increases in opacity in diffuse ground glass density in both lungs and fibroatelectasis in lower lobes were observed. With the prediagnosis of P. jiroveci pneumonia, the HIV-infected patient was given trimethoprim-- sulfamethoxazole 15 mg/kg/day intravenously (i.v.). On the 4th day of the patient's hospitalization, mutiplex PCR-based rapid syndromic Biofire (Film Array) blood culture identification 2 (BCID2) test (Biomerieux, France) was applied for rapid identification from blood culture. C. neoformans was detected in the blood culture panel. The treatment that the patient was taking with the diagnosis of C. neoformans fungemia was started at a dose of liposomal amphotericin B 5 mg/kg/- day + fluconazole 800 mg/day. CONCLUSION: While the incidence of opportunistic infections has decreased with antiretroviral therapy (ART), it remains a problem in patients who are unaware of being infected with HIV or who fail ART or refuse treatment. High fungal burden, advanced age, low CD4+ cell count, and being underweight are risk factors for mortality in HIV-positive patients. Our case was a cachectic patient with a CD4 count of 7 cells/mm3. Despite the early and effective treatment, the course was fatal.