Interaction of platinum agents, cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin against albumin in vivo rats and in vitro study using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometory.

The protein binding rates (PBR) of platinum-containing agents cisplatin (CDDP), carboplatin (CBDCA) and oxaliplatin (L-OHP) have been reported as 98%, 25-50% and 98%, respectively. To investigate the protein-binding properties of albumin with cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to measure their plasma concentration in rats over time. The study also examined the effects of cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin-binding on albumin in vitro, using CD spectrometry and native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (native PAGE). The ratios of PBR to irreversible PBR, of cisplatin and oxaliplatin were 98%:98% and 90%:87%, respectively, indicating a higher affinity for irreversible binding with albumin. That of carboplatin was 25%:10%, indicating 60-70% reversible binding with albumin. The plasma protein binding rate concentrations of cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin after in vivo administration were 96%, 15% and 80%, respectively. The CD spectrometry of albumin was unaffected by cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin binding. Though similar protein binding rates were observed with oxaliplatin and cisplatin, oxaliplatin had a higher mobility rate during PAGE. It was confirmed that the binding of cisplatin and oxaliplatin with albumin affected its electric charge but not the structure. In conclusion, cisplatin and oxaliplatin bind irreversibly with albumin in plasma and may irreversibly interact with tissue protein and/or DNA. The difficulties involved with predicting the tissue concentrations of cisplatin and oxaliplatin from their plasma concentration inhibits their therapeutic drug monitoring. On the contrary, carboplatin, like some generic drugs, reversibly binds to plasma proteins. It is, therefore, possible to conduct therapeutic drug monitoring for carboplatin.

A Novel Analytical Method of Cisplatin Using the HPLC with a Naphthylethyl Group Bonded with Silica Gel (πNAP) Column.

Cisplatin is the most widely used anticancer drug in the world. Mono-chloro and none-chloro complexes of cisplatin may be believed to be the activated compounds. The separation of these compounds using octa decyl silyl column or aminopropylsilyl silica gel column is difficult because of high-reactivity and structural similarity. In this study, cisplatin, hydroxo complexes, and OH-dimer were determined by HPLC using a naphthylethyl group bonded with silica gel (πNAP) column. The analytical conditions of HPLC were as follows: analytical column, πNAP column; wave length, 225 nm; column temperature, 40°C; mobile phase, 0.1 M sodium perchlorate, acetonitrile, and perchloric acid (290 : 10 : 3), flow rate, 1.0 mL/min. Sample (20 µL) was injected onto the HPLC system. Retention time of cisplatin, mono-chloride, OH-dimer, and none-chloride was 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, and, 4.3-6.6 min, respectively. Measurable ranges with this method were 1×10-5 to 4×10-3 M for cisplatin. Correlation coefficient of the calibration curves of cisplatin was 0.999 (p<0.01). The within- and between-day variations of coefficient of variation (CV) were 5% or lower. In this study, injectable formulations in physiological saline solution, water for injection, 5% glucose solution, and 7% sodium bicarbonate precisely were measured the stability and compositional changes upon mixing by πNAP column rather than C18 column. We successfully determined cisplatin, hydroxo complexes, and OH-dimer by HPLC using a πNAP column. Thus the measurement of cisplatin (cis-diamminedichloro-platinum(II), cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2]) (CDDP) should be done using a πNAP column rather than a C18 column or aminopropylsilyl silica gel column.

Second- and higher-order structural changes of DNA induced by antitumor-active tetrazolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complexes with different types of 5-substituent.

Here, we used circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence microscopy (FM) to examine the interactions of a series of antitumor-active tetrazolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complexes, [{cis-Pt(NH3)2}2(µ-OH)(µ-5-R-tetrazolato-N2,N3)](n+) (R=CH3 (1), C6H5 (2), CH2COOCH2CH3 (3), CH2COO(-) (4), n=2 (1-3) or 1 (4)), which are derivatives of [{cis-Pt(NH3)2}2(µ-OH)(µ-tetrazolato-N2,N3)](2+) (5-H-Y), with DNA to elucidate the influence of these interactions on the secondary or higher-order structure of DNA and reveal the mechanism of action. The CD study showed that three derivatives, 1-3, with a double-positive charge altered the secondary structures of calf thymus DNA but that 4, the only complex with a single positive charge, induced almost no change, implying that the B- to C-form conformational change is influenced by ionic attraction. Unexpectedly, single-molecule observations with FM revealed that 4 changed the higher-order structure of T4 DNA into the compact-globule state most efficiently, at the lowest concentration, which was nearly equal to that of 5-H-Y. These contradictory results suggest that secondary structural changes are not necessarily linked to higher-order ones, and that the non-coordinative interaction could be divided into two distinct interactions: (1) ionic attraction and (2) hydrogen bonding and/or van der Waals contact. The relationship between diffusion-controlled non-coordinative DNA interactions and cytotoxicities is also discussed.

Synthesis of antitumor azolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(ii) complexes with in vivo antitumor efficacy and unique in vitro cytotoxicity profiles.

We synthesised four tetrazolato-bridged dinuclear Pt(ii) complexes, [{cis-Pt(NH3)2}2(µ-OH)(µ-5-R-tetrazolato-N2,N3)](n+), where R is CH3 (1), C6H5 (2), CH2COOC2H5 (3), or CH2COO(-) (4) and n = 2 (1-3) or 1 (4). Their structures were characterised by (1)H, (13)C, and (195)Pt NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and elemental analysis, and the crystal structure of 1 was determined by X-ray crystallography. The cytotoxicities of the complexes to human non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines sensitive and resistant to cisplatin were assayed. Complex 1 was more cytotoxic than cisplatin in both PC-9 and PC-14 NSCLC cell lines, and cross-resistance to 1 in the cisplatin-resistant cells was largely circumvented. Complex 3 was moderately cytotoxic, whereas 2 and 4 were only marginally cytotoxic. We also determined the growth inhibitory activities of 1 and 3, as well as prototype azolato-bridged complexes [{cis-Pt(NH3)2}2(µ-OH)(µ-pyrazolato)](2+) (AMPZ), [{cis-Pt(NH3)2}2(µ-OH)(µ-1,2,3-triazolato-N1,N2)](2+) (AMTA), [{cis-Pt(NH3)2}2(µ-OH)(µ-tetrazolato-N1,N2)](2+) (5-H-X), and [{cis-Pt(NH3)2}2(µ-OH)(µ-tetrazolato-N2,N3)](2+) (5-H-Y), against a panel of 39 human cancer cell lines (JFCR39). The average 50% growth inhibition concentrations of the complexes against the JFCR39 cell lines ranged from 0.933 to 23.4 µM. The cytotoxicity fingerprints of the complexes based on the JFCR39 cytotoxicity data were similar to one another but completely different from the fingerprints of clinical platinum-based anticancer drugs. Complex 3 exhibited marked antitumor efficiency when tested in vivo on xenografts of PANC-1 pancreatic cancer in nude mice. The high potency of 3 confirmed that the tetrazolato-bridged structure exhibits high in vivo antitumor efficacy.

A circular dichroism study uncovers a two-step interaction of antitumor azolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complexes with calf thymus DNA.

The interactions of four antitumor azolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complexes, [{cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)}(2)(µ-OH)(µ-azolato)](2+), with calf thymus DNA were monitored dose- and time-dependently, by using circular dichroism. Complexes 1-4 reacted with DNA via a two-step interaction that comprised a prompt diffusion-controlled reaction, which induced a B- to C-form transition, and a relatively slow temperature-dependent reaction.

An in vivo highly antitumor-active tetrazolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complex largely circumvents in vitro cisplatin resistance: two linkage isomers yield the same product upon reaction with 9-ethylguanine but exhibit different cytotoxic profiles.

Cytotoxicity assays of azolato-bridged dinuclear Pt(II) complexes, [{cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)}(2)(µ-OH)(µ-azolato)](2+), where the azolato was pyrazolato (1), 1,2,3-triazolato-N1,N2 (2), tetrazolato-N1,N2 (3), or tetrazolato-N2,N3 (4), were performed in cisplatin-sensitive and -resistant human non-small-cell lung cancer cell lines (PC-9 and PC-14). These complexes largely circumvented the cisplatin resistance in both cell lines, with resistance factors for 1-4 in the range of 0.5-0.8 and 0.9-2.0 for PC-9 and PC-14 cells, respectively. Complex 4 exhibited approximately 10 times the cytotoxicity of 3. When 3 and 4 were reacted with 2 molar equiv. of 9-ethylguanine (9EtG), they yielded an identical product, [{cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)(9EtG-N7)}(2)(µ-tetrazolato-N1,N3)](3+), that had N1,N3 platinum coordination through a Pt(II) migration process on the tetrazolate ring. The second-order rate kinetics of these isomers were almost the same as each other and faster than those of 1 and 2. The cytotoxicity of azolato-bridged complexes, except for 3, increases as their kinetic rates in the 9EtG reaction increase.

Highly efficient DNA compaction mediated by an in vivo antitumor-active tetrazolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complex.

We investigated the effects of antitumor-active tetrazolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complexes [{cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)}(2)(µ-OH)(µ-tetrazolato-N(1),N(2))](2+) (1) and [{cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)}(2)(µ-OH)(µ-tetrazolato-N(2),N(3))](2+) (2) on the higher-order structure of a large DNA molecule (T4 phage DNA, 166 kbp) in aqueous solution through single-molecule observation by fluorescence microscopy. Complexes 1 and 2 cause irreversible compaction of DNA through an intermediate state in which coil and compact parts coexist in a single DNA molecule. The potency of compaction is in the order 2 > 1 ≫ cisplatin. Transmission electron microscopic observation showed that both complexes collapsed DNA into an irregularly packed structure. Circular dichroism measurements revealed that the dinuclear platinum(II) complexes change the secondary structure of DNA from the B to C form. These characteristics of platinum(II) complexes are markedly different from those of the usual condensing agents such as spermidine(3+) and [Co(III)(NH(3))(6)](3+). The ability to cause DNA compaction by the platinum(II) complexes is discussed in relation to their potent antitumor activity.

The phosphate clamp: a small and independent motif for nucleic acid backbone recognition.

The 1.7 Å X-ray crystal structure of the B-DNA dodecamer, [d(CGCGAATTCGCG)]2 (DDD)-bound non-covalently to a platinum(II) complex, [{Pt(NH3)3}2-µ-{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6NH2)2}](NO3)6 (1, TriplatinNC-A,) shows the trinuclear cation extended along the phosphate backbone and bridging the minor groove. The square planar tetra-am(m)ine Pt(II) units form bidentate N-O-N complexes with OP atoms, in a Phosphate Clamp motif. The geometry is conserved and the interaction prefers O2P over O1P atoms (frequency of interaction is O2P > O1P, base and sugar oxygens > N). The binding mode is very similar to that reported for the DDD and [{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6(NH3(+))}2-µ-{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6NH2)2}](NO3)8 (3, TriplatinNC), which exhibits in vivo anti-tumour activity. In the present case, only three sets of Phosphate Clamps were found because one of the three Pt(II) coordination spheres was not clearly observed and was characterized as a bare Pt²(+) ion. Based on the electron density, the relative occupancy of DDD and the sum of three Pt(II) atoms in the DDD-1 complex was 1:1.69, whereas the ratio for DDD-2 was 1:2.85, almost the mixing ratio in the crystallization drop. The high repetition and geometric regularity of the motif suggests that it can be developed as a modular nucleic acid binding device with general utility.

Characteristic effect of an anticancer dinuclear platinum(II) complex on the higher-order structure of DNA.

It is known that a 1,2,3-triazolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complex, [{cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)}(2)(micro-OH)(micro-1,2,3-ta-N (1),N (2))](NO(3))(2) (AMTA), shows high in vitro cytotoxicity against several human tumor cell lines and circumvents cross-resistance to cisplatin. In the present study, we examined a dose- and time-dependent effect of AMTA on the higher-order structure of a large DNA, T4 phage DNA (166 kbp), by adapting single-molecule observation with fluorescence microscopy. It was found that AMTA induces the shrinking of DNA into a compact state with a much higher potency than cisplatin. From a quantitative analysis of the Brownian motion of individual DNA molecules in solution, it became clear that the density of a DNA segment in the compact state is about 2,000 times greater than that in the absence of AMTA. Circular dichroism spectra suggested that AMTA causes a transition from the B to the C form in the secondary structure of DNA, which is characterized by fast and slow processes. Electrophoretic measurements indicated that the binding of AMTA to supercoiled DNA induces unwinding of the double helix. Our results indicate that AMTA acts on DNA through both electrostatic interaction and coordination binding; the former causes a fast change in the secondary structure from the B to the C form, whereas the latter promotes shrinking in the higher-order structure as a relatively slow kinetic process. The shrinking effect of AMTA on DNA is attributable to the possible increase in the number of bridges along a DNA molecule. It is concluded that AMTA interacts with DNA in a manner markedly different from that of cisplatin.

Determination of albumin in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid by flow-injection fluorometry using chromazurol S.

A highly sensitive flow injection fluorometry for the determination of albumin was developed and applied to the determination of albumin in human bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF). This method is based on binding of chromazurol S (CAS) to albumin. The calibration curve was linear in the range of 5-200 microg/ml of albumin. A highly linear correlation (r=0.986) was observed between the albumin level in BALF samples (n=25) determined by the proposed method and by a conventional fluorometric method using CAS (CAS manual method). The IgG interference was lower in the CAS flow injection method than in the CAS manual method. The albumin level in BALF collected from healthy volunteers (n=10) was 58.5+/-13.1 microg/ml. The albumin levels in BALF samples obtained from patients with sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis were increased. This finding shows that the determination of albumin levels in BALF samples is useful for investigating lung diseases and that CAS flow injection method is promising in the determination of trace albumin in BALF samples, because it is sensitive and precise.

[Current status of and future perspectives for platinum antitumor drugs].

Cisplatin, a simple inorganic compound, has been one of the leading antitumor drugs for near 30 years. However, cisplatin has several drawbacks such as toxicity and drug resistance. Therefore, much attention has been focused on the development of new platinum complexes with improved pharmacological properties and a broader spectrum of activity to tumors. The recent advance of research on the molecular mechanisms of drug action and the cellular mechanisms of the emergence of resistance to cisplatin assists the rational design of new classes of platinum antitumor drugs, though details of both mechanisms still remain elusive. Information on DNA binding mode of platinum complexes, recognition and repair of DNA damage is instructive. Since several not cis isomers but trans isomers and not neutral complexes but cation complexes have been found active in vitro and in vivo, the early empirical structure-activity relationships of cisplatin analogues should be reevaluated. The hypothesis that platinum complexes which bind to DNA in a different manner will have different pharmacological properties has been tested, and now cationic multi-nuclear complexes and even trans-platinum complexes comprise unique classes of antitumor platinum-based agents with chemical and biological properties different from cisplatin. These new type platinum complexes are often effective to acquired cisplatin resistant tumor cells. In conclusion, the following complexes appear to offer great potential as new antitumor agents: (1) Complexes with distinctively different DNA interaction modes from cisplatin, which may circumvent intrinsic and acquired resistance to cisplatin through eluding the vigilance of DNA repair systems and (2) complexes with different tissue distribution or mechanisms of membrane transport which may exhibit a different spectrum of activity.

Determination of desmosine in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids by time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay.

BACKGROUND: Urinary excretion of desmosine has been reported to be increased in patients with pulmonary fibrosis; however, several investigators have pointed out that measuring urinary desmosine is not a very useful indicator of lung wall destruction. We developed a sensitive time resolved fluoroimmunoassay (TR-FIA) to identify trace amounts of desmosine in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and applied this method to analyse BALF samples from healthy subjects and patients with interstitial lung diseases. METHODS: In the proposed TR-FIA, a polystyrene strip was coated with desmosine-conjugated gelatin. The strip was then incubated with rabbit anti-desmosine antibody and the test solution. The desmosine bound to the solid phase and free desmosine in the sample or standard solution were allowed to compete to bind to the anti-desmosine. The solid-phase antibody was detected by Eu-complex conjugated anti-rabbit IgG. RESULTS: The detectable limit of desmosine was 50 fmol/ml in the TR-FIA developed in this study. TR-FIA showed low cross-reactivity against amino acids. BALF desmosine levels were significantly higher in patients with idiopathic fibrosis and sarcoidosis compared with healthy subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Desmosine levels in BALF may be useful to investigate lung disease.

Fluorimetric determination of trace amounts of albumin in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid with eriochrome cyanine R.

A fluorimetric method using eriochrome cyanine R (ECR) was applied to determine trace amounts of albumin in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). The ECR-albumin adduct showed intense fluorescence and the calibration curve was linear in the range of 2.5-100 microg/ml of human serum albumin (r=0.999). The sensitivity was high enough to determine trace amounts of albumin in BALF. In the present study, the results obtained by the ECR method were compared with those of an EIA, and a good linear correlation was observed between the two methods (r=0.946). The ECR method is simpler and more rapid than EIA. The concentrations of albumin in BALF samples were determined by the ECR method. The albumin level in BALF of healthy nonsmokers (n=9) was lower than that of healthy smokers (n=9) (42.9+/-20.7 and 48.3+/-15.7 microg/ml, respectively). On the other hand, the albumin level of BALF samples obtained from patients with hypersensitivity pneumonitis was increased versus in healthy subjects. The determination of albumin in BALF samples by the ECR method is useful for investigating lung diseases.

A third mode of DNA binding: Phosphate clamps by a polynuclear platinum complex.

We describe a 1.2 A X-ray structure of a double-stranded B-DNA dodecamer (the Dickerson Dodecamer, DDD, [d(CGCGAATTCGCG)]2) associated with a cytotoxic platinum(II) complex, [{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6(NH3+)}2-mu-{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6NH2)2}] (TriplatinNC). TriplatinNC is a multifunctional DNA ligand, with three cationic Pt(II) centers, and directional hydrogen bonding functionalities, linked by flexible hydrophobic segments, but without the potential for covalent interaction. TriplatinNC does not intercalate nor does it bind in either groove. Instead, it binds to phosphate oxygen atoms and thus associates with the backbone. The three square-planar tetra-am(m)ine Pt(II) coordination units form bidentate N...O...N complexes with OP atoms, in a motif we call the Phosphate Clamp. The geometry is conserved among the 8 observed phosphate clamps in this structure. The interaction appears to prefer O2P over O1P atoms (frequency of interaction is O2P > O1P, base and sugar oxygens > N). The high repetition and geometric regularity of the motif suggests that this type of Pt(II) center can be developed as a modular nucleic acid binding device with general utility. TriplatinNC extends along the phosphate backbone, in a mode of binding we call "Backbone Tracking" and spans the minor groove in a mode of binding we call "Groove Spanning". Electrostatic forces appear to induce modest DNA bending into the major groove. This bending may be related to the direct coordination of a sodium cation by a DNA base, with unprecedented inner-shell (direct) coordination of penta-hydrated sodium at the O6 atom of a guanine.

New isomeric azine-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complexes circumvent cross-resistance to cisplatin.

Four new isomeric azine-bridged complexes ([(cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)Cl)(2)(mu-pzn)]Cl(2) (1a) (pzn = pyrazine) and its corresponding nitrate salt (1b), [(cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)Cl)(2)(mu-pmn)]Cl(2) (2) (pmn = pyrimidine), and [(cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)Cl)(2)(mu-pdn)](NO(3))(2) (3) (pdn = pyridazine) have been newly synthesized as potential anticancer compounds. These complexes have been characterized by (1)H and (195)Pt NMR spectroscopy, and also the X-ray crystal structure of 1b has been determined. The reactions of 1a, 2, and 3 with guanosine-5'-monophosphate (GMP) have been monitored and kinetically investigated in D(2)O solutions at 310 K using (1)H NMR spectroscopy. Both 1a and 2 react with 2 equiv of GMP to form 1:2 complexes. The reactions involve a stepwise direct substitution of chloride ligands by GMP, with similar reaction rates for both complexes. On the other hand, the reaction of 3 with GMP results in the cleavage of one of the Pt-N(pyridazine) bonds to form an N7,O6-platinated polymer. The reaction products have been separated and have been characterized by (1)H and (195)Pt NMR spectroscopy. A cytotoxicity assay of the azine-bridged complexes (1a, 1b, 2, and 3) has been performed on human tumor cell lines and two L1210 murine leukemia cell lines (one sensitive to and one resistant to cisplatin). In general, the complexes show lower cytotoxicity than cisplatin for the human tumor cell lines except for the IGROV cell line. Their cytotoxicity for the mouse cell lines is comparable to or higher than that of cisplatin. Furthermore, these complexes appeared to largely or partly overcome the cross-resistance to cisplatin. Implications of these findings are discussed in the context of a structure-activity relationship for this class of compounds.

A novel isomerization on interaction of antitumor-active azole-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complexes with 9-ethylguanine. Platinum(II) atom migration from N2 to N3 on 1,2,3-triazole.

The reactions of the dinuclear platinum(II) complexes, [[cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)](2)(mu-OH)(mu-pz)](NO(3))(2) (1, pz = pyrazolate), [[cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)](2)(mu-OH)(mu-1,2,3-ta-N1,N2)](NO(3))(2) (2, 1,2,3-ta = 1,2,3-triazolate), and a newly prepared [[cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)](2)(mu-OH)(mu-4-phe-1,2,3-ta-N1,N2)](NO(3))(2) (3, 4-phe-1,2,3-ta = 4-phenyl-1,2,3-triazolate), whose crystal structure was determined, with 9-ethylguanine (9EtG) have been monitored in aqueous solution at 310 K by means of (1)H NMR spectroscopy. The dinuclear platinum(II) complexes 1-3 each react with 9EtG in a bifunctional way to form 1:2 complexes, [[cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)(9EtG-N7)](2)(mu-pz)](3+) (4), [[cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)(9EtG-N7)](2)(mu-1,2,3-ta-N1,N3)](3+) (5), and [[cis-Pt(NH(3))(2)(9EtG-N7)](2)(mu-4-phe-1,2,3-ta-N1,N3)](3+) (6). The reactions of 2 and 3 involve a novel isomerization, in which the Pt atom, initially bound to N2 on the 1,2,3-ta, migrates to N3 after the first substitution by N7 of 9EtG. This isomerization reaction has been unambiguously characterized by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and pH titration. The reactions of 2 and 3 with 9EtG show faster kinetics, and the second-order rate constants (k) for the reactions of 1-3are 1.57 x 10(-4), 2.53 x 10(-4), and 2.56 x 10(-4) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. The pK(a) values at the N1H site of 9EtG were determined for 4-6 from the pH titration curves. Cytotoxicity assays of 1-3 were performed in L1210 murine leukemia cell lines, respectively sensitive and resistant to cisplatin. In the parent cell line, 2 and 3 exhibit higher cytotoxicity compared to cisplatin, especially, 2 is 10 times as active as cisplatin. 1 was found to be less cytotoxic than cisplatin, but still in the active range and more active than cisplatin in a cisplatin-resistant cell line.