Floret Biofortification of Broccoli Using Amino Acids Coupled with Selenium under Different Surfactants: A Case Study of Cultivating Functional Foods.

Broccoli serves as a functional food because it can accumulate selenium (Se), well-known bioactive amino-acid-derived secondary metabolites, and polyphenols. The chemical and physical properties of Se are very similar to those of sulfur (S), and competition between sulfate and selenate for uptake and assimilation has been demonstrated. Towards an efficient agronomic fortification of broccoli florets, the working questions were whether we could overcome this competition by exogenously applying the S-containing amino acids cysteine (Cys) or/and methionine (Met), or/and the precursors of Glucosinolate (GSL) types along with Se application. Broccoli plants were cultivated in a greenhouse and at the beginning of floret growth, we exogenously applied sodium selenate in the concentration gradient of 0, 0.2, 1.5, and 3.0 mM to study the impact of increased Se concentration on the organic S (Sorg) content of the floret. The Se concentration of 0.2 mM (Se0.2) was coupled with the application of Cys, Met, their combination, or a mixture of phenylalanine, tryptophane, and Met. The application took place through fertigation or foliar application (FA) by adding isodecyl alcohol ethoxylate (IAE) or a silicon ethoxylate (SiE) surfactant. Fresh biomass, dry mass, and Se accumulation in florets were evaluated, along with their contents of Sorg, chlorophylls (Chl), carotenoids (Car), glucoraphanin (GlRa), glucobrassicin (GlBra), glucoiberin (GlIb), and polyphenols (PPs), for the biofortification efficiency of the three application modes. From the studied selenium concentration gradient, the foliar application of 0.2 mM Se using silicon ethoxylate (SiE) as a surfactant provided the lowest commercially acceptable Se content in florets (239 µg or 0.3 µmol g-1 DM); it reduced Sorg (-45%), GlIb (-31%), and GlBr (-27%); and it increased Car (21%) and GlRa (27%). Coupled with amino acids, 0.2 mM Se provided commercially acceptable Se contents per floret only via foliar application. From the studied combinations, that of Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE provided the lowest Se content per floret (183 µg or 0.2 µmol g-1 DM) and increased Sorg (35%), Car (45%), and total Chl (27%), with no effect on PPs or GSLs. Cys,Met,Se0.2/FA,IAE and amino acid mix,Se0.2/FA,IAE increased Sorg content, too, by 36% and 16%, respectively. Thus, the foliar application with the IAE surfactant was able to increase Sorg, and methionine was the amino acid in common in these treatments, with varying positive effects on carotenoids and chlorophylls. Only the Cys,Met,Se0.2 combination presented positive effects on GSLs, especially GlRa, but it reduced the fresh mass of the floret. The foliar application with SiE as a surfactant failed to positively affect the organic S content. However, in all studied combinations of Se 0.2 mM with amino acids, the Se content per floret was commercially acceptable, the yield was not affected, the content of GSLs was increased (especially that of GlRa and GlIb), and PPs were not affected. The content of GlBr decreased except for the treatment with methionine (Met,Se0.2/FA,SiE) where GlBr remained unaffected. Hence, the combination of Se with the used amino acids and surfactants can provide enhanced biofortification efficiency in broccoli by providing florets as functional foods with enhanced functional properties.

Determination of indole-type phytonutrients in cruciferous vegetables.

Consumption of cruciferous vegetables has been associated with a low risk of developing cancer. Indole-type phytonutrients, derived from enzymatic hydrolysis of glucobrassicin, exhibit cancer-preventive properties and occur in all vegetables of the Brassicaceae family. A LC-Q-TOF-MS methodology was developed and applied in extracts from seven cruciferous vegetables allowing the rapid determination of indole-3-carbinol, indole-3-carbaldehyde, ascorbigen, indole-3-acetic acid and indole-3-acetonitrile. The novel method described herein, was validated and is characterized by low detection limits and excellent linearity. The simultaneous determination of indole-type phytonutrients in turnip and radish was performed for the first time.

Identification of Auxin Metabolites in Brassicaceae by Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry.

Auxins are signaling molecules involved in multiple stages of plant growth and development. The levels of the most important auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), are regulated by the formation of amide and ester conjugates with amino acids and sugars. In this work, IAA and IAA amide conjugates with amino acids bearing a free carboxylic group or a methyl ester group, along with some selected IAA metabolites, were studied in positive and negative electrospray ionization (ESI) modes, utilizing high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) as a tool for their structural analysis. HRMS/MS spectra revealed the fragmentation patterns that enable us to identify IAA metabolites in plant extracts from eight vegetables of the Brassicaceae family using a fast and reliable ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QToF-MS) method. The accurate m/z (mass to charge) ratio and abundance of the molecular and fragment ions of the studied compounds in plant extracts matched those obtained from commercially available or synthesized compounds and confirmed the presence of IAA metabolites.

High resolution mass spectrometry studies of sulforaphane and indole-3-carbinol in broccoli.

Broccoli is a rich source of bioactive compounds. Among them, sulforaphane and indole-3-carbinol have attracted a lot of attention, since their consumption is associated with reduced risk of cancer. In this work, the development of an efficient and direct method for the simultaneous determination of sulforaphane and indole-3-carbinol in broccoli using UPLC-HRMS/MS is described. The correlation coefficient, and limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were 0.993, 0.77mg/L and 2.35mg/L for sulforaphane and 0.997, 0.42mg/L, 1.29mg/L for indole-3-carbinol, respectively. The content of sulforaphane and indole-3-carbinol varied between 72±9-304±2mg and 77±1-117±3mg per 100g of fresh florets, respectively. Taking into consideration the differences in cultivar, geography, season and environmental factors, the results agreed with values published in the literature using other techniques.

2-Oxoamides based on dipeptides as selective calcium-independent phospholipase A2 inhibitors.

Calcium-independent phospholipase A2 (GVIA iPLA2) has recently attracted interest as a medicinal target. The number of known GVIA iPLA2 inhibitors is limited to a handful of synthetic compounds (bromoenol lactone and polyfluoroketones). To expand the chemical diversity, a variety of 2-oxoamides based on dipeptides and ether dipeptides were synthesized and studied for their in vitro inhibitory activity on human GVIA iPLA2 and their selectivity over the other major intracellular GIVA cPLA2 and the secreted GV sPLA2. Structure-activity relationship studies revealed the first 2-oxoamide derivative (GK317), which presents potent inhibition of GVIA iPLA2 (XI(50) value of 0.007) and at the same time significant selectivity over GIVA cPLA2 and GV sPLA2.

Inhibitors of secreted phospholipase A2 suppress the release of PGE2 in renal mesangial cells.

The upregulation of PGE2 by mesangial cells has been observed under chronic inflammation condition. In the present work, renal mesangial cells were stimulated to trigger a huge increase of PGE2 synthesis and were treated in the absence or presence of known PLA2 inhibitors. A variety of synthetic inhibitors, mainly developed in our labs, which are known to selectively inhibit each of GIVA cPLA2, GVIA iPLA2, and GIIA/GV sPLA2, were used as tools in this study. Synthetic sPLA2 inhibitors, such as GK115 (an amide derivative based on the non-natural amino acid (R)-γ-norleucine) as well as GK126 and GK241 (2-oxoamides based on the natural (S)-α-amino acid leucine and valine, respectively) presented an interesting effect on the suppression of PGE2 formation.

Inhibition of group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 by thiazolyl ketones in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo.

Group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 (GIVA cPLA2) is the rate-limiting provider of pro-inflammatory mediators in many tissues and is thus an attractive target for the development of novel anti-inflammatory agents. In this work, we present the synthesis of new thiazolyl ketones and the study of their activities in vitro, in cells, and in vivo. Within this series of compounds, methyl 2-(2-(4-octylphenoxy)acetyl)thiazole-4-carboxylate (GK470) was found to be the most potent inhibitor of GIVA cPLA2, exhibiting an XI(50) value of 0.011 mole fraction in a mixed micelle assay and an IC50 of 300 nM in a vesicle assay. In a cellular assay using SW982 fibroblast-like synoviocytes, it suppressed the release of arachidonic acid with an IC50 value of 0.6 µM. In a prophylactic collagen-induced arthritis model, it exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect comparable to the reference drug methotrexate, whereas in a therapeutic model, it showed results comparable to those of the reference drug Enbrel. In both models, it significantly reduced plasma PGE2 levels.

New potent and selective polyfluoroalkyl ketone inhibitors of GVIA calcium-independent phospholipase A2.

Group VIA calcium-independent phospholipase A2 (GVIA iPLA2) has recently emerged as an important pharmaceutical target. Selective and potent GVIA iPLA2 inhibitors can be used to study its role in various neurological disorders. In the current work, we explore the significance of the introduction of a substituent in previously reported potent GVIA iPLA2 inhibitors. 1,1,1,2,2-Pentafluoro-7-(4-methoxyphenyl)heptan-3-one (GK187) is the most potent and selective GVIA iPLA2 inhibitor ever reported with a XI(50) value of 0.0001, and with no significant inhibition against GIVA cPLA2 or GV sPLA2. We also compare the inhibition of two difluoromethyl ketones on GVIA iPLA2, GIVA cPLA2, and GV sPLA2.

Binding conformation of 2-oxoamide inhibitors to group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 determined by molecular docking combined with molecular dynamics.

The group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A(2) (GIVA cPLA(2)) plays a central role in inflammation. Long chain 2-oxoamides constitute a class of potent GIVA cPLA(2) inhibitors that exhibit potent in vivo anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity. We have now gained insight into the binding of 2-oxoamide inhibitors in the GIVA cPLA(2) active site through a combination of molecular docking calculations and molecular dynamics simulations. Recently, the location of the 2-oxoamide inhibitor AX007 within the active site of the GIVA cPLA(2) was determined using a combination of deuterium exchange mass spectrometry followed by molecular dynamics simulations. After the optimization of the AX007-GIVA cPLA(2) complex using the docking algorithm Surflex-Dock, a series of additional 2-oxoamide inhibitors have been docked in the enzyme active site. The calculated binding affinity presents a good statistical correlation with the experimental inhibitory activity (r(2) = 0.76, N = 11). A molecular dynamics simulation of the docking complex of the most active compound has revealed persistent interactions of the inhibitor with the enzyme active site and proves the stability of the docking complex and the validity of the binding suggested by the docking calculations. The combination of molecular docking calculations and molecular dynamics simulations is useful in defining the binding of small-molecule inhibitors and provides a valuable tool for the design of new compounds with improved inhibitory activity against GIVA cPLA(2).

Phospholipase A2 superfamily members play divergent roles after spinal cord injury.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in permanent loss of motor functions. A significant aspect of the tissue damage and functional loss may be preventable as it occurs, secondary to the trauma. We show that the phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) superfamily plays important roles in SCI. PLA(2) enzymes hydrolyze membrane glycerophospholipids to yield a free fatty acid and lysophospholipid. Some free fatty acids (arachidonic acid) give rise to eicosanoids that promote inflammation, while some lysophospholipids (lysophosphatidylcholine) cause demyelination. We show in a mouse model of SCI that two cytosolic forms [calcium-dependent PLA(2) group IVA (cPLA(2) GIVA) and calcium-independent PLA(2) group VIA (iPLA(2) GVIA)], and a secreted form [secreted PLA(2) group IIA (sPLA(2) GIIA)] are up-regulated. Using selective inhibitors and null mice, we show that these PLA(2)s play differing roles. cPLA(2) GIVA mediates protection, whereas sPLA(2) GIIA and, to a lesser extent, iPLA(2) GVIA are detrimental. Furthermore, completely blocking all three PLA(2)s worsens outcome, while the most beneficial effects are seen by partial inhibition of all three. The partial inhibitor enhances expression of cPLA(2) and mediates its beneficial effects via the prostaglandin EP1 receptor. These findings indicate that drugs that inhibit detrimental forms of PLA(2) (sPLA(2) and iPLA2) and up-regulate the protective form (cPLA2) may be useful for the treatment of SCI.

Differing roles for members of the phospholipase A2 superfamily in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

The phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) superfamily hydrolyzes phospholipids to release free fatty acids and lysophospholipids, some of which can mediate inflammation and demyelination, hallmarks of the CNS autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis. The expression of two of the intracellular PLA(2)s (cPLA(2) GIVA and iPLA(2) GVIA) and two of the secreted PLA(2)s (sPLA(2) GIIA and sPLA(2) GV) are increased in different stages of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis. We show using small molecule inhibitors, that cPLA(2) GIVA plays a role in the onset, and iPLA(2) GVIA in the onset and progression of EAE. We also show a potential role for sPLA(2) in the later remission phase. These studies demonstrate that selective inhibition of iPLA(2) can ameliorate disease progression when treatment is started before or after the onset of symptoms. The effects of these inhibitors on lesion burden, chemokine and cytokine expression as well as on the lipid profile provide insights into their potential modes of action. iPLA(2) is also expressed by macrophages and other immune cells in multiple sclerosis lesions. Our results therefore suggest that iPLA(2) might be an excellent target to block for the treatment of CNS autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis.

Synthesis of polyfluoro ketones for selective inhibition of human phospholipase A2 enzymes.

The development of selective inhibitors for individual PLA(2) enzymes is necessary in order to target PLA(2)-specific signaling pathways, but it is challenging due to the observed promiscuity of known PLA(2) inhibitors. In the current work, we present the development and application of a variety of synthetic routes to produce pentafluoro, tetrafluoro, and trifluoro derivatives of activated carbonyl groups in order to screen for selective inhibitors and characterize the chemical properties that can lead to selective inhibition. Our results demonstrate that the pentafluoroethyl ketone functionality favors selective inhibition of the GVIA iPLA(2), a very important enzyme for which specific, potent, reversible inhibitors are needed. We find that 1,1,1,2,2-pentafluoro-7-phenyl-heptan-3-one (FKGK11) is a selective inhibitor of GVIA iPLA(2) (X(I)(50) = 0.0073). Furthermore, we conclude that the introduction of an additional fluorine atom at the alpha' position of a trifluoromethyl ketone constitutes an important strategy for the development of new potent GVIA iPLA(2) inhibitors.

Structure-activity relationships of natural and non-natural amino acid-based amide and 2-oxoamide inhibitors of human phospholipase A(2) enzymes.

A variety of 2-oxoamides and related amides based on natural and non-natural amino acids were synthesized. Their activity on two human intracellular phospholipases (GIVA cPLA(2) and GVIA iPLA(2)) and one human secretory phospholipase (GV sPLA(2)) was evaluated. We show that an amide based on (R)-gamma-norleucine is a highly selective inhibitor of GV sPLA(2).

Intracellular phospholipase A(2) group IVA and group VIA play important roles in Wallerian degeneration and axon regeneration after peripheral nerve injury.

We provide evidence that two members of the intracellular phospholipase A(2) family, namely calcium-dependent group IVA (cPLA(2) GIVA) and calcium-independent group VIA (iPLA(2) GVIA) may play important roles in Wallerian degeneration in the mouse sciatic nerve. We assessed the roles of these PLA(2)s in cPLA(2) GIVA(-/-) mice, and mice treated with a selective inhibitor of iPLA(2) GVIA (FKGK11). Additionally, the effects of both these PLA(2)s were assessed by treating cPLA(2) GIVA(-/-) mice with the iPLA(2) inhibitor. Our data suggest that iPLA(2) GVIA may play more of a role in the early stages of myelin breakdown, while cPLA(2) GIVA may play a greater role in myelin clearance by macrophages. Our results also show that the delayed myelin clearance and Wallerian degeneration after sciatic nerve crush injury in mice lacking cPLA(2) and iPLA(2) activities is accompanied by a delay in axon regeneration, target re-innervation and functional recovery. These results indicate that the intracellular PLA(2)s (cPLA(2) GIVA and iPLA(2) GVIA) contribute significantly to various aspects of Wallerian degeneration in injured peripheral nerves, which is then essential for successful axon regeneration. This work has implications for injury responses and recovery after peripheral nerve injuries in humans, as well as for understanding the slow clearance of myelin after CNS injury and its potential consequences for axon regeneration.

Synthesis of 2-oxoamides based on sulfonamide analogs of gamma-amino acids and their activity on phospholipase A2.

A variety of lipophilic 2-oxoamides containing sulfonamide analogs of gamma-amino acids as well as acyl sulfonamides of gamma-aminobutyric acid were synthesized. Their ability to inhibit intracellular GIVA cPLA2 and GVIA iPLA2 as well as secreted GV sPLA2 was evaluated. The sulfonamide group seems a bioisosteric group suitable to replace the carboxyl group in 2-oxoamide inhibitors of GVIA cPLA2.

Structure-activity relationship of 2-oxoamide inhibition of group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 and group V secreted phospholipase A2.

The Group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 (GIVA cPLA2) is a key provider of substrates for the production of eicosanoids and platelet-activating factor. We explored the structure-activity relationship of 2-oxoamide-based compounds and GIVA cPLA2 inhibition. The most potent inhibitors are derived from delta- and gamma-amino acid-based 2-oxoamides. The optimal side-chain moiety is a short nonpolar aliphatic chain. All of the newly developed 2-oxoamides as well as those previously described have now been tested with the human Group V secreted PLA2 (GV sPLA2) and the human Group VIA calcium-independent PLA2 (GVIA iPLA2). Only one 2-oxoamide compound had appreciable inhibition of GV sPLA2, and none of the potent GIVA cPLA2 inhibitors inhibited either GV sPLA2 or GVIA iPLA2. Two of these specific GIVA cPLA2 inhibitors were also found to have potent therapeutic effects in animal models of pain and inflammation at dosages well below the control nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Enzymatic removal of carboxyl protecting groups. III. Fast removal of allyl and chloroethyl esters by Bacillus subtilis esterase (BS2).

An esterase from Bacillus subtilis (BS2) allows the fast and selective removal of allyl, 2-chloroethyl, and 2,2,2-chloroethyl esters under mild conditions in high yields. In addition, BS2 easily hydrolyzes phenacyl esters, while the hydrolysis of sterically hindered diphenylmethyl esters is slow, requiring longer reaction time and higher enzyme/substrate ratio.

Differential inhibition of group IVA and group VIA phospholipases A2 by 2-oxoamides.

Inhibitors of the Group IVA phospholipase A(2) (GIVA cPLA(2)) and GVIA iPLA(2) are useful tools for defining the roles of these enzymes in cellular signaling and inflammation. We have developed inhibitors of GVIA iPLA(2) building upon the 2-oxoamide backbone that are uncharged, containing ester groups. Although the most potent inhibitors of GVIA iPLA(2) also inhibited GIVA cPLA(2), there were three 2-oxoamide compounds that selectively and weakly inhibited GVIA iPLA(2). We further show that several potent 2-oxoamide inhibitors of GIVA cPLA(2) containing free carboxylic groups (Kokotos et al. J. Med. Chem. 2002, 45, 2891-2893) do not inhibit GVIA iPLA(2) and are, therefore, selective GIVA cPLA(2) inhibitors.

Enzymatic removal of carboxyl protecting groups. 2. Cleavage of the benzyl and methyl moieties.

[reaction: see text] Enzymes are versatile reagents for the efficient removal of methyl and benzyl protecting groups. An esterase from Bacillus subtilis (BS2) and a lipase from Candida antarctica (CAL-A) allow a mild and selective removal of these moieties in high yields without affecting other functional groups.

Phase transitions in crystals of racemic long chain 2-amino alcohols.

Various techniques, namely differential scanning calorimetry, optical microscopy, dielectric and Raman spectroscopy, all covering a wide range of temperatures, were used to study the thermodynamically stable phases and molecular mobility of crystals of long chain 2-amino alcohols. The results showed that two different crystal forms are present in each sample. The temperature behaviour of the phases is studied in details.