A phase I trial of vaccination with lethally irradiated lymphoma cells admixed with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor secreting K562 cells for the treatment of follicular lymphoma.

Several vaccine strategies have been tested for the treatment of follicular lymphoma; however, none have proven successful. In a phase I dose-escalation protocol, we developed a vaccine consisting of lethally irradiated whole lymphoma cells admixed with K562 cells that constitutively secreted granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-K562)(ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00487305). Patients with grade 1, 2, or 3 A follicular lymphoma were divided into 2 study tiers based on prior treatment and received a maximum of 6 vaccines. Vaccines contained dose levels of 5 × 106 or 1 × 107 GM-K562 cells admixed with autologous tumor cells at doses ranging from 1 × 105 to 5 × 107.Correlative studies did not demonstrate a significant immune response as assessed by delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions, B and T cell subsets, and natural killer cell subsets. Future vaccine studies should focus on identifying lymphoma-specific immunogenic proteins and modifying the vaccine immune adjuvant.

A molecular glue degrader of the WIZ transcription factor for fetal hemoglobin induction.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a prevalent, life-threatening condition attributable to a heritable mutation in ß-hemoglobin. Therapeutic induction of fetal hemoglobin (HbF) can ameliorate disease complications and has been intently pursued. However, safe and effective small-molecule inducers of HbF remain elusive. We report the discovery of dWIZ-1 and dWIZ-2, molecular glue degraders of the WIZ transcription factor that robustly induce HbF in erythroblasts. Phenotypic screening of a cereblon (CRBN)-biased chemical library revealed WIZ as a previously unknown repressor of HbF. WIZ degradation is mediated by recruitment of WIZ(ZF7) to CRBN by dWIZ-1, as resolved by crystallography of the ternary complex. Pharmacological degradation of WIZ was well tolerated and induced HbF in humanized mice and cynomolgus monkeys. These findings establish WIZ degradation as a globally accessible therapeutic strategy for SCD.

Phase II trial of vaccination with autologous, irradiated melanoma cells engineered by adenoviral mediated gene transfer to secrete granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor in patients with stage III and IV melanoma.

Background: In the era of immune checkpoint blockade, the role of cancer vaccines in immune priming has provided additional potential for therapeutic improvements. Prior studies have demonstrated delayed type hypersensitivity and anti-tumor immunity with vaccines engineered to secrete granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). The safety, efficacy and anti-tumor immunity of GM-CSF secreting vaccine in patients with previously treated stage III or IV melanoma needs further investigation. Methods: In this phase II trial, excised lymph node metastases were processed to single cells, transduced with an adenoviral vector encoding GM-CSF, irradiated, and cryopreserved. Individual vaccines were composed of 1x106, 4x106, or 1x107 tumor cells, and were injected intradermally and subcutaneously at weekly and biweekly intervals. The primary endpoints were feasibility of producing vaccine in stage III patients and determining the proportion of patients alive at two years in stage IV patients. Results: GM-CSF vaccine was successfully developed and administered in all 61 patients. Toxicities were restricted to grade 1-2 local skin reactions. The median OS for stage III patients (n = 20) was 71.1 (95% CI, 43.7 to NR) months and 14.9 (95%CI, 12.1 to 39.7) months for stage IV patients. The median PFS in stage III patients was 50.7 (95%CI, 36.3 to NR) months and 4.1 (95% CI, 3.0-6.3) months in stage IV patients. In the overall population, the disease control rate was 39.3% (95%CI, 27.1 to 52.7%). In stage III patients, higher pre-treatment plasma cytokine levels of MMP-1, TRAIL, CXCL-11, CXCL-13 were associated with improved PFS (p<0.05 for all). An increase in post-vaccination levels of IL-15 and TRAIL for stage III patients was associated with improved PFS (p=0.03 for both). Similarly, an increase in post-vaccination IL-16 level for stage IV patients was associated with improved PFS (p=0.02) and clinical benefit. Conclusions: Vaccination with autologous melanoma cells secreting GM-CSF augments antitumor immunity in stage III and IV patients with melanoma, is safe, and demonstrates disease control. Luminex data suggests that changes in inflammatory cytokines and immune cell infiltration promote tumor antigen presentation and subsequent tumor cell destruction. Additional investigation to administer this vaccine in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors is needed.

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor Influence on Soluble and Membrane-Bound ICOS in Combination with Immune Checkpoint Blockade.

With the successful development of immune checkpoint blockade, there remains the continued need to improve efficacy and decrease toxicities. The addition of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) to ipilimumab has previously demonstrated both an improvement in efficacy and decrease in the incidence of high-grade adverse events. ICOS+CD4+ or ICOS+CD8+ peripheral blood T cells are significantly greater in the patients treated with ipilimumab plus GM-CSF than in the patients treated with ipilimumab alone. To better understand the effects of GM-CSF on inducible T-cell costimulator (ICOS) and clinical outcomes, the relative roles of identified soluble ICOS and membrane-bound ICOS were evaluated. The ICOS splice variant was secreted and found to have immunologic suppressive effects. Changes in soluble ICOS splice variant levels in treated patients correlated with clinical outcomes. GM-CSF enhanced membrane-bound ICOS in an IL12-dependent manner but did not increase soluble ICOS levels. Whereas soluble ICOS plays a role in immune suppression, GM-CSF efficacy involves increasing membrane-bound ICOS and induction of dendritic cell development. Thus, soluble ICOS splice variants may be used as a biomarker for GM-CSF and immune checkpoint blockade-based therapies.

Targeting the IL1ß Pathway for Cancer Immunotherapy Remodels the Tumor Microenvironment and Enhances Antitumor Immune Responses.

High levels of IL1ß can result in chronic inflammation, which in turn can promote tumor growth and metastasis. Inhibition of IL1ß could therefore be a promising therapeutic option in the treatment of cancer. Here, the effects of IL1ß blockade induced by the mAbs canakinumab and gevokizumab were evaluated alone or in combination with docetaxel, anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (anti-PD-1), anti-VEGFα, and anti-TGFß treatment in syngeneic and humanized mouse models of cancers of different origin. Canakinumab and gevokizumab did not show notable efficacy as single-agent therapies; however, IL1ß blockade enhanced the effectiveness of docetaxel and anti-PD-1. Accompanying these effects, blockade of IL1ß alone or in combination induced significant remodeling of the tumor microenvironment (TME), with decreased numbers of immune suppressive cells and increased tumor infiltration by dendritic cells (DC) and effector T cells. Further investigation revealed that cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) were the cell type most affected by treatment with canakinumab or gevokizumab in terms of change in gene expression. IL1ß inhibition drove phenotypic changes in CAF populations, particularly those with the ability to influence immune cell recruitment. These results suggest that the observed remodeling of the TME following IL1ß blockade may stem from changes in CAF populations. Overall, the results presented here support the potential use of IL1ß inhibition in cancer treatment. Further exploration in ongoing clinical studies will help identify the best combination partners for different cancer types, cancer stages, and lines of treatment.

Discovery and characterization of a selective IKZF2 glue degrader for cancer immunotherapy.

Malignant tumors can evade destruction by the immune system by attracting immune-suppressive regulatory T cells (Treg) cells. The IKZF2 (Helios) transcription factor plays a crucial role in maintaining function and stability of Treg cells, and IKZF2 deficiency reduces tumor growth in mice. Here we report the discovery of NVP-DKY709, a selective molecular glue degrader of IKZF2 that spares IKZF1/3. We describe the recruitment-guided medicinal chemistry campaign leading to NVP-DKY709 that redirected the degradation selectivity of cereblon (CRBN) binders from IKZF1 toward IKZF2. Selectivity of NVP-DKY709 for IKZF2 was rationalized by analyzing the DDB1:CRBN:NVP-DKY709:IKZF2(ZF2 or ZF2-3) ternary complex X-ray structures. Exposure to NVP-DKY709 reduced the suppressive activity of human Treg cells and rescued cytokine production in exhausted T-effector cells. In vivo, treatment with NVP-DKY709 delayed tumor growth in mice with a humanized immune system and enhanced immunization responses in cynomolgus monkeys. NVP-DKY709 is being investigated in the clinic as an immune-enhancing agent for cancer immunotherapy.

Characterization of sabatolimab, a novel immunotherapy with immuno-myeloid activity directed against TIM-3 receptor.

Objectives: Sabatolimab is a humanized monoclonal antibody (hIgG4, S228P) directed against human T-cell immunoglobulin domain and mucin domain-3 (TIM-3). Herein, we describe the development and characterization of sabatolimab. Methods: Sabatolimab was tested for binding to its target TIM-3 and blocking properties. The functional effects of sabatolimab were tested in T-cell killing and myeloid cell cytokine assays. Antibody-mediated cell phagocytosis (ADCP) by sabatolimab was also assessed. Results: Sabatolimab was shown to (i) enhance T-cell killing and inflammatory cytokine production by dendritic cells (DCs); (ii) facilitate the phagocytic uptake of TIM-3-expressing target cells; and (iii) block the interaction between TIM-3 and its ligands PtdSer/galectin-9. Conclusion: Taken together, our results support both direct anti-leukemic effects and immune-mediated modulation by sabatolimab, reinforcing the notion that sabatolimab represents a novel immunotherapy with immuno-myeloid activity, holding promise for the treatment of myeloid cell neoplasms.

Preclinical Characterization and Phase I Study of an Anti-HER2-TLR7 Immune-Stimulator Antibody Conjugate in Patients with HER2+ Malignancies.

Immune-stimulator antibody conjugates (ISAC) combining tumor-targeting monoclonal antibodies with immunostimulatory agents allow targeted delivery of immune activators into tumors. NJH395 is a novel, first-in-class ISAC comprising a Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) agonist conjugated to an anti-HER2 antibody via a noncleavable linker payload. Preclinical characterization showed ISAC-mediated activation of myeloid cells in the presence of antigen-expressing cancer cells, with antigen targeting and TLR7 agonism contributing to antitumor activity. Safety, efficacy, immunogenicity, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics were investigated in a phase I, multicenter, open-label study in patients with HER2+ non-breast advanced malignancies (NCT03696771). Data from 18 patients enrolled in single ascending dose escalation demonstrated delivery of the TLR7-agonist payload in HER2+ tumor cells and induction of type I IFN responses, which correlated with immune modulation in the tumor microenvironment. Cytokine release syndrome was a common, but manageable, drug-related adverse event. Antidrug antibodies and neuroinflammation at high doses represented significant clinical challenges. Data provide proof-of-mechanism and critical insights for novel immunotherapies.

A vaccine targeting resistant tumours by dual T cell plus NK cell attack.

Most cancer vaccines target peptide antigens, necessitating personalization owing to the vast inter-individual diversity in major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules that present peptides to T cells. Furthermore, tumours frequently escape T cell-mediated immunity through mechanisms that interfere with peptide presentation1. Here we report a cancer vaccine that induces a coordinated attack by diverse T cell and natural killer (NK) cell populations. The vaccine targets the MICA and MICB (MICA/B) stress proteins expressed by many human cancers as a result of DNA damage2. MICA/B serve as ligands for the activating NKG2D receptor on T cells and NK cells, but tumours evade immune recognition by proteolytic MICA/B cleavage3,4. Vaccine-induced antibodies increase the density of MICA/B proteins on the surface of tumour cells by inhibiting proteolytic shedding, enhance presentation of tumour antigens by dendritic cells to T cells and augment the cytotoxic function of NK cells. Notably, this vaccine maintains efficacy against MHC class I-deficient tumours resistant to cytotoxic T cells through the coordinated action of NK cells and CD4+ T cells. The vaccine is also efficacious in a clinically important setting: immunization following surgical removal of primary, highly metastatic tumours inhibits the later outgrowth of metastases. This vaccine design enables protective immunity even against tumours with common escape mutations.

Invariant NKT cell-augmented GM-CSF-secreting tumor vaccine is effective in advanced prostate cancer model.

Invariant natural killer T cells (iNKT cells) express a semi-invariant T cell receptor that recognizes certain glycolipids (including α-galactosylceramide, αGC) bound to CD1d, and can induce potent antitumor responses. Here, we assessed whether αGC could enhance the efficacy of a GM-CSF-producing tumor cell vaccine in the transgenic SV40 T antigen-driven TRAMP prostate cancer model. In healthy mice, we initially found that optimal T cell responses were obtained with αGC-pulsed TRAMP-C2 cells secreting GM-CSF and milk fat globule epidermal growth factor protein-8 (MFG-E8) with an RGD to RGE mutation (GM-CSF/RGE TRAMP-C2), combined with systemic low dose IL-12. In a therapeutic model, transgenic TRAMP mice were then castrated at ~ 20 weeks, followed by treatment with the combination vaccine. Untreated mice succumbed to tumor by ~ 40 weeks, but survival was markedly prolonged by vaccine treatment, with most mice surviving past 80 weeks. Prostates in the treated mice were heavily infiltrated with T cells and iNKT cells, which both secreted IFNγ in response to tumor cells. The vaccine was not effective if the αGC, IL-12, or GM-CSF secretion was eliminated. Finally, immunized mice were fully resistant to challenge with TRAMP-C2 cells. Together these findings support further development of therapeutic vaccines that exploit iNKT cell activation.

The feasibility of using an autologous GM-CSF-secreting breast cancer vaccine to induce immunity in patients with stage II-III and metastatic breast cancers.

PURPOSE: The antigenic targets of immunity and the role of vaccination in breast cancer are unknown. We performed a phase I study of an autologous GM-CSF-secreting breast cancer vaccine in patients with metastatic and stage II-III breast cancer. METHODS: Tumor cells from patients with metastatic (n = 15) and stage II-III (n = 7) disease were transduced with a replication-defective adenoviral vector encoding GM-CSF, and then irradiated. Twelve and seven patients with metastatic and stage II-III disease, respectively, received weekly vaccination for three weeks, followed by every other week until disease progression or vaccine supply was exhausted (metastatic) or until six total vaccine doses were administered (stage II-III). RESULTS: Among those patients with metastatic disease who received vaccinations, eight had progressive disease at two months, three had stable disease for 4-13 months, and one has had no evidence of disease for 13 years. Of the patients with stage II-III disease, five died of metastatic disease between 1.16 and 8.49 years after the start of vaccinations (median 6.24 years) and two are alive as of September 2021. Toxicities included injection site reactions, fatigue, fever, upper respiratory symptoms, joint pain, nausea, and edema. Four of five evaluable patients with metastatic disease developed a skin reaction with immune cell infiltration after the fifth injection of unmodified, irradiated tumor cells. CONCLUSION: We conclude that tumor cells can be harvested from patients with metastatic or stage II-III breast cancer to prepare autologous GM-CSF-secreting vaccines that induce coordinated immune responses with limited toxicity. TRIAL REGISTRATION AND DATE OF REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov, NCT00317603 (April 25, 2006) and NCT00880464 (April 13, 2009).

Colon stroma mediates an inflammation-driven fibroblastic response controlling matrix remodeling and healing.

Chronic inflammation is often associated with the development of tissue fibrosis, but how mesenchymal cell responses dictate pathological fibrosis versus resolution and healing remains unclear. Defining stromal heterogeneity and identifying molecular circuits driving extracellular matrix deposition and remodeling stands to illuminate the relationship between inflammation, fibrosis, and healing. We performed single-cell RNA-sequencing of colon-derived stromal cells and identified distinct classes of fibroblasts with gene signatures that are differentially regulated by chronic inflammation, including IL-11-producing inflammatory fibroblasts. We further identify a transcriptional program associated with trans-differentiation of mucosa-associated fibroblasts and define a functional gene signature associated with matrix deposition and remodeling in the inflamed colon. Our analysis supports a critical role for the metalloprotease Adamdec1 at the interface between tissue remodeling and healing during colitis, demonstrating its requirement for colon epithelial integrity. These findings provide mechanistic insight into how inflammation perturbs stromal cell behaviors to drive fibroblastic responses controlling mucosal matrix remodeling and healing.

GM-CSF secreting leukemia cell vaccination for MDS/AML after allogeneic HSCT: a randomized, double-blinded, phase 2 trial.

Vaccination using irradiated, adenovirus transduced autologous myeloblasts to secrete granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GVAX) early after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) can induce potent immune responses. We conducted a randomized phase 2 trial of GVAX after HSCT for myelodysplastic syndrome with excess blasts or relapsed/refractory acute myeloid leukemia. Myeloblasts were harvested before HSCT to generate the vaccine. Randomization to GVAX vs placebo (1:1) was stratified according to disease, transplant center, and conditioning. Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) prophylaxis included tacrolimus and methotrexate. GVAX or placebo vaccination was started between day 30 and 45 if there was engraftment and no GVHD. Vaccines were administered subcutaneously/intradermally weekly × 3, then every 2 weeks × 3. Tacrolimus taper began after vaccine completion. A total of 123 patients were enrolled, 92 proceeded to HSCT, and 57 (GVAX, n = 30; placebo, n = 27) received at least 1 vaccination. No Common Toxicity Criteria grade 3 or worse vaccine-related adverse events were reported, but injection site reactions were more common after GVAX (10 vs 1; P = .006). With a median follow-up of 39 months (range, 9-89 months), 18-month progression-free survival, overall survival, and relapse incidence were 53% vs 55% (P = .79), 63% vs 59% (P = .86), and 30% vs 37% (P = .51) for GVAX and placebo, respectively. Nonrelapse mortality at 18 months was 17% vs 7.7% (P = .18), grade II to IV acute GVHD at 12 months was 34% vs 12% (P = .13), and chronic GVHD at 3 years was 49% vs 57% for GVAX and placebo (P = .26). Reconstitution of T, B, and natural killer cells was not decreased or enhanced by GVAX. There were no differences in serum major histocompatibility chain-related protein A/B or other immune biomarkers between GVAX and placebo. GVAX does not improve survival after HSCT for myelodysplastic syndrome/acute myeloid leukemia. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT01773395.

SHP2 blockade enhances anti-tumor immunity via tumor cell intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms.

SHP2 is a ubiquitous tyrosine phosphatase involved in regulating both tumor and immune cell signaling. In this study, we discovered a novel immune modulatory function of SHP2. Targeting this protein with allosteric SHP2 inhibitors promoted anti-tumor immunity, including enhancing T cell cytotoxic function and immune-mediated tumor regression. Knockout of SHP2 using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing showed that targeting SHP2 in cancer cells contributes to this immune response. Inhibition of SHP2 activity augmented tumor intrinsic IFNγ signaling resulting in enhanced chemoattractant cytokine release and cytotoxic T cell recruitment, as well as increased expression of MHC Class I and PD-L1 on the cancer cell surface. Furthermore, SHP2 inhibition diminished the differentiation and inhibitory function of immune suppressive myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment. SHP2 inhibition enhanced responses to anti-PD-1 blockade in syngeneic mouse models. Overall, our study reveals novel functions of SHP2 in tumor immunity and proposes that targeting SHP2 is a promising strategy for cancer immunotherapy.

An IMiD-inducible degron provides reversible regulation for chimeric antigen receptor expression and activity.

The recent development of successful CAR (chimeric antigen receptor) T cell therapies has been accompanied by a need to better control potentially fatal toxicities that can arise from adverse immune reactions. Here we present a ligand-controlled CAR system, based on the IKZF3 ZF2 ß-hairpin IMiD-inducible degron, which allows for the reversible control of expression levels of type I membrane proteins, including CARs. Testing this system in an established mouse xenotransplantation model for acute lymphoblastic leukemia, we validate the ability of the CAR19-degron to target and kill CD19-positive cells displaying complete control/clearance of the tumor. We also demonstrate that the activity of CAR19-degron can be regulated in vivo when dosing a US Food and Drug Administration-approved drug, lenalidomide.

A CRISPR Screen Reveals Resistance Mechanisms to CD3-Bispecific Antibody Therapy.

CD3-bispecific antibodies represent an important therapeutic strategy in oncology. These molecules work by redirecting cytotoxic T cells to antigen-bearing tumor cells. Although CD3-bispecific antibodies have been developed for several clinical indications, cases of cancer-derived resistance are an emerging limitation to the more generalized application of these molecules. Here, we devised whole-genome CRISPR screens to identify cancer resistance mechanisms to CD3-bispecific antibodies across multiple targets and cancer types. By validating the screen hits, we found that deficiency in IFNγ signaling has a prominent role in cancer resistance. IFNγ functioned by stimulating the expression of T-cell killing-related molecules in a cell type-specific manner. By assessing resistance to the clinical CD3-bispecific antibody flotetuzumab, we identified core fucosylation as a critical pathway to regulate flotetuzumab binding to the CD123 antigen. Disruption of this pathway resulted in significant resistance to flotetuzumab treatment. Proper fucosylation of CD123 was required for its normal biological functions. In order to treat the resistance associated with fucosylation loss, flotetuzumab in combination with an alternative targeting CD3-bispecific antibody demonstrated superior efficacy. Together, our study reveals multiple mechanisms that can be targeted to enhance the clinical potential of current and future T-cell-engaging CD3-bispecific antibody therapies.

TGFß-blockade uncovers stromal plasticity in tumors by revealing the existence of a subset of interferon-licensed fibroblasts.

Despite the increasing interest in targeting stromal elements of the tumor microenvironment, we still face tremendous challenges in developing adequate therapeutics to modify the tumor stromal landscape. A major obstacle to this is our poor understanding of the phenotypic and functional heterogeneity of stromal cells in tumors. Herein, we perform an unbiased interrogation of tumor mesenchymal cells, delineating the co-existence of distinct subsets of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in the microenvironment of murine carcinomas, each endowed with unique phenotypic features and functions. Furthermore, our study shows that neutralization of TGFß in vivo leads to remodeling of CAF dynamics, greatly reducing the frequency and activity of the myofibroblast subset, while promoting the formation of a fibroblast population characterized by strong response to interferon and heightened immunomodulatory properties. These changes correlate with the development of productive anti-tumor immunity and greater efficacy of PD1 immunotherapy. Along with providing the scientific rationale for the evaluation of TGFß and PD1 co-blockade in the clinical setting, this study also supports the concept of plasticity of the stromal cell landscape in tumors, laying the foundation for future investigations aimed at defining pathways and molecules to program CAF composition for cancer therapy.

Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cells Targeting NKG2D-Ligands Show Robust Efficacy Against Acute Myeloid Leukemia and T-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia.

CAR T cell approaches to effectively target AML and T-ALL without off-tumor effects on healthy myeloid or T cell compartments respectively are an unmet medical need. NKG2D-ligands are a promising target given their absence on healthy cells and surface expression in a wide range of malignancies. NKG2D-ligand expression has been reported in a substantial group of patients with AML along with evidence for prognostic significance. However, reports regarding the prevalence and density of NKG2D-ligand expression in AML vary and detailed studies to define whether low level expression is sufficient to trigger NKG2D-ligand directed CART cell responses are lacking. NKG2D ligand expression in T-ALL has not previously been interrogated. Here we report that NKG2D-ligands are expressed in T-ALL cell lines and primary T-ALL. We confirm that NKG2D-ligands are frequently surface expressed in primary AML, albeit at relatively low levels. Utilizing CAR T cells incorporating the natural immune receptor NKG2D as the antigen binding domain, we demonstrate striking in vitro activity of CAR T cells targeting NKG2D-ligands against AML and T-ALL cell lines and show that even low-level ligand expression in primary AML targets results in robust NKG2D-CAR activity. We found that NKG2D-ligand expression can be selectively enhanced in low-expressing AML cell lines and primary AML blasts via pharmacologic HDAC inhibition. Such pharmacologic NKG2D-ligand induction results in enhanced NKG2D-CAR anti-leukemic activity without affecting healthy PBMC, thereby providing rationale for the combination of HDAC-inhibitors with NKG2D-CAR T cell therapy as a potential strategy to achieve clinical NKG2D-CAR T cell efficacy in AML.

GM-CSF, IL-3, and IL-5 Family of Cytokines: Regulators of Inflammation.

The ß common chain cytokines GM-CSF, IL-3, and IL-5 regulate varied inflammatory responses that promote the rapid clearance of pathogens but also contribute to pathology in chronic inflammation. Therapeutic interventions manipulating these cytokines are approved for use in some cancers as well as allergic and autoimmune disease, and others show promising early clinical activity. These approaches are based on our understanding of the inflammatory roles of these cytokines; however, GM-CSF also participates in the resolution of inflammation, and IL-3 and IL-5 may also have such properties. Here, we review the functions of the ß common cytokines in health and disease. We discuss preclinical and clinical data, highlighting the potential inherent in targeting these cytokine pathways, the limitations, and the important gaps in understanding of the basic biology of this cytokine family.