Epithelial Expressed B7-H4 Drives Differential Immunotherapy Response in Murine and Human Breast Cancer.

Combinations of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI, including anti-PD-1/PD-L1) and chemotherapy have been FDA approved for metastatic and early-stage triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), but most patients do not benefit. B7-H4 is a B7 family ligand with proposed immunosuppressive functions being explored as a cancer immunotherapy target and may be associated with anti-PD-L1 resistance. However, little is known about its regulation and effect on immune cell function in breast cancers. We assessed murine and human breast cancer cells to identify regulation mechanisms of B7-H4 in vitro. We used an immunocompetent anti-PD-L1-sensitive orthotopic mammary cancer model and induced ectopic expression of B7-H4. We assessed therapy response and transcriptional changes at baseline and under treatment with anti-PD-L1. We observed B7-H4 was highly associated with epithelial cell status and transcription factors and found to be regulated by PI3K activity. EMT6 tumors with cell-surface B7-H4 expression were more resistant to immunotherapy. In addition, tumor-infiltrating immune cells had reduced immune activation signaling based on transcriptomic analysis. Paradoxically, in human breast cancer, B7-H4 expression was associated with survival benefit for patients with metastatic TNBC treated with carboplatin plus anti-PD-L1 and was associated with no change in response or survival for patients with early breast cancer receiving chemotherapy plus anti-PD-1. While B7-H4 induces tumor resistance to anti-PD-L1 in murine models, there are alternative mechanisms of signaling and function in human cancers. In addition, the strong correlation of B7-H4 to epithelial cell markers suggests a potential regulatory mechanism of B7-H4 independent of PD-L1. SIGNIFICANCE: This translational study confirms the association of B7-H4 expression with a cold immune microenvironment in breast cancer and offers preclinical studies demonstrating a potential role for B7-H4 in suppressing response to checkpoint therapy. However, analysis of two clinical trials with checkpoint inhibitors in the early and metastatic settings argue against B7-H4 as being a mechanism of clinical resistance to checkpoints, with clear implications for its candidacy as a therapeutic target.

NKG2A Is a Therapeutic Vulnerability in Immunotherapy Resistant MHC-I Heterogeneous Triple-Negative Breast Cancer.

Despite the success of immune checkpoint inhibition (ICI) in treating cancer, patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) often develop resistance to therapy, and the underlying mechanisms are unclear. MHC-I expression is essential for antigen presentation and T-cell-directed immunotherapy responses. This study demonstrates that TNBC patients display intratumor heterogeneity in regional MHC-I expression. In murine models, loss of MHC-I negates antitumor immunity and ICI response, whereas intratumor MHC-I heterogeneity leads to increased infiltration of natural killer (NK) cells in an IFNγ-dependent manner. Using spatial technologies, MHC-I heterogeneity is associated with clinical resistance to anti-programmed death (PD) L1 therapy and increased NK:T-cell ratios in human breast tumors. MHC-I heterogeneous tumors require NKG2A to suppress NK-cell function. Combining anti-NKG2A and anti-PD-L1 therapies restores complete response in heterogeneous MHC-I murine models, dependent on the presence of activated, tumor-infiltrating NK and CD8+ T cells. These results suggest that similar strategies may enhance patient benefit in clinical trials. SIGNIFICANCE: Clinical resistance to immunotherapy is common in breast cancer, and many patients will likely require combination therapy to maximize immunotherapeutic benefit. This study demonstrates that heterogeneous MHC-I expression drives resistance to anti-PD-L1 therapy and exposes NKG2A on NK cells as a target to overcome resistance. This article is featured in Selected Articles from This Issue, p. 201.

T cells specific for α-myosin drive immunotherapy-related myocarditis.

Immune-related adverse events, particularly severe toxicities such as myocarditis, are major challenges to the utility of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in anticancer therapy1. The pathogenesis of ICI-associated myocarditis (ICI-MC) is poorly understood. Pdcd1-/-Ctla4+/- mice recapitulate clinicopathological features of ICI-MC, including myocardial T cell infiltration2. Here, using single-cell RNA and T cell receptor (TCR) sequencing of cardiac immune infiltrates from Pdcd1-/-Ctla4+/- mice, we identify clonal effector CD8+ T cells as the dominant cell population. Treatment with anti-CD8-depleting, but not anti-CD4-depleting, antibodies improved the survival of Pdcd1-/-Ctla4+/- mice. Adoptive transfer of immune cells from mice with myocarditis induced fatal myocarditis in recipients, which required CD8+ T cells. The cardiac-specific protein α-myosin, which is absent from the thymus3,4, was identified as the cognate antigen source for three major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted TCRs derived from mice with fulminant myocarditis. Peripheral blood T cells from three patients with ICI-MC were expanded by α-myosin peptides. Moreover, these α-myosin-expanded T cells shared TCR clonotypes with diseased heart and skeletal muscle, which indicates that α-myosin may be a clinically important autoantigen in ICI-MC. These studies underscore the crucial role for cytotoxic CD8+ T cells, identify a candidate autoantigen in ICI-MC and yield new insights into the pathogenesis of ICI toxicity.

Combined Dusp4 and p53 loss with Dbf4 amplification drives tumorigenesis via cell cycle restriction and replication stress escape in breast cancer.

AIM: Deregulated signaling pathways are a hallmark feature of oncogenesis and driver of tumor progression. Dual specificity protein phosphatase 4 (DUSP4) is a critical negative regulator of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and is often deleted or epigenetically silenced in tumors. DUSP4 alterations lead to hyperactivation of MAPK signaling in many cancers, including breast cancer, which often harbor mutations in cell cycle checkpoint genes, particularly in TP53. METHODS: Using a genetically engineered mouse model, we generated mammary-specific Dusp4-deleted primary epithelial cells to investigate the necessary conditions in which DUSP4 loss may drive breast cancer oncogenesis. RESULTS: We found that Dusp4 loss alone is insufficient in mediating tumorigenesis, but alternatively converges with loss in Trp53 and MYC amplification to induce tumorigenesis primarily through chromosome 5 amplification, which specifically upregulates Dbf4, a cell cycle gene that promotes cellular replication by mediating cell cycle checkpoint escape. CONCLUSIONS: This study identifies a novel mechanism for breast tumorigenesis implicating Dusp4 loss and p53 mutations in cellular acquisition of Dbf4 upregulation as a driver of cellular replication and cell cycle checkpoint escape.

Estrogen regulates the expression of retinoic acid synthesis enzymes and binding proteins in mouse skin.

Topical 17-beta-estradiol (E2) regulates the hair cycle, hair shaft differentiation, and sebum production. Vitamin A also regulates sebum production. Vitamin A metabolism proteins localized to the pilosebaceous unit (PSU; hair follicle and sebaceous gland); and were regulated by E2 in other tissues. This study tests the hypothesis that E2 also regulates vitamin A metabolism in the PSU. First, aromatase and estrogen receptors localized to similar sites as retinoid metabolism proteins during mid-anagen. Next, female and male wax stripped C57BL/6J mice were topically treated with E2, the estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780 (ICI), letrozole, E2 plus letrozole, or vehicle control (acetone) during mid-anagen. E2 or one of its inhibitors regulated most of the vitamin A metabolism genes and proteins examined in a sex-dependent manner. Most components were higher in females and reduced with ICI in females. ICI reductions occurred in the premedulla, sebaceous gland, and epidermis. Reduced E2 also reduced RA receptors in the sebaceous gland and bulge in females. However, reduced E2 increased the number of retinal dehydrogenase 2 positive hair follicle associated dermal dendritic cells in males. These results suggest that estrogen regulates vitamin A metabolism in the skin. Interactions between E2 and vitamin A have implications in acne treatment, hair loss, and skin immunity.

Changes in Peripheral and Local Tumor Immunity after Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy Reshape Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Breast Cancer.

PURPOSE: The recent approval of anti-programmed death-ligand 1 immunotherapy in combination with nab-paclitaxel for metastatic triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) highlights the need to understand the role of chemotherapy in modulating the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We examined immune-related gene expression patterns before and after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) in a series of 83 breast tumors, including 44 TNBCs, from patients with residual disease (RD). Changes in gene expression patterns in the TIME were tested for association with recurrence-free (RFS) and overall survival (OS). In addition, we sought to characterize the systemic effects of NAC through single-cell analysis (RNAseq and cytokine secretion) of programmed death-1-high (PD-1HI) CD8+ peripheral T cells and examination of a cytolytic gene signature in whole blood. RESULTS: In non-TNBC, no change in expression of any single gene was associated with RFS or OS, while in TNBC upregulation of multiple immune-related genes and gene sets were associated with improved long-term outcome. High cytotoxic T-cell signatures present in the peripheral blood of patients with breast cancer at surgery were associated with persistent disease and recurrence, suggesting active antitumor immunity that may indicate ongoing disease burden. CONCLUSIONS: We have characterized the effects of NAC on the TIME, finding that TNBC is uniquely sensitive to the immunologic effects of NAC, and local increases in immune genes/sets are associated with improved outcomes. However, expression of cytotoxic genes in the peripheral blood, as opposed to the TIME, may be a minimally invasive biomarker of persistent micrometastatic disease ultimately leading to recurrence.

MEK activation modulates glycolysis and supports suppressive myeloid cells in TNBC.

Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) are heterogeneous and aggressive, with high mortality rates. TNBCs frequently respond to chemotherapy, yet many patients develop chemoresistance. The molecular basis and roles for tumor cell-stromal crosstalk in establishing chemoresistance are complex and largely unclear. Here we report molecular studies of paired TNBC patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) established before and after the development of chemoresistance. Interestingly, the chemoresistant model acquired a distinct KRASQ61R mutation that activates K-Ras. The chemoresistant KRAS-mutant model showed gene expression and proteomic changes indicative of altered tumor cell metabolism. Specifically, KRAS-mutant PDXs exhibited increased redox ratios and decreased activation of AMPK, a protein involved in responding to metabolic homeostasis. Additionally, the chemoresistant model exhibited increased immunosuppression, including expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2, cytokines responsible for recruiting immunosuppressive leukocytes to tumors. Notably, chemoresistant KRAS-mutant tumors harbored increased numbers of granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (gMDSCs). Interestingly, previously established Ras/MAPK-associated gene expression signatures correlated with myeloid/neutrophil-recruiting CXCL1/2 expression and negatively with T cell-recruiting chemokines (CXCL9/10/11) across patients with TNBC, even in the absence of KRAS mutations. MEK inhibition induced tumor suppression in mice while reversing metabolic and immunosuppressive phenotypes, including chemokine production and gMDSC tumor recruitment in the chemoresistant KRAS-mutant tumors. These results suggest that Ras/MAPK pathway inhibitors may be effective in some breast cancer patients to reverse Ras/MAPK-driven tumor metabolism and immunosuppression, particularly in the setting of chemoresistance.

Tumor-specific MHC-II expression drives a unique pattern of resistance to immunotherapy via LAG-3/FCRL6 engagement.

Immunotherapies targeting the PD-1 pathway produce durable responses in many cancers, but the tumor-intrinsic factors governing response and resistance are largely unknown. MHC-II expression on tumor cells can predict response to anti-PD-1 therapy. We therefore sought to determine how MHC-II expression by tumor cells promotes PD-1 dependency. Using transcriptional profiling of anti-PD-1-treated patients, we identified unique patterns of immune activation in MHC-II+ tumors. In patients and preclinical models, MHC-II+ tumors recruited CD4+ T cells and developed dependency on PD-1 as well as Lag-3 (an MHC-II inhibitory receptor), which was upregulated in MHC-II+ tumors at acquired resistance to anti-PD-1. Finally, we identify enhanced expression of FCRL6, another MHC-II receptor expressed on NK and T cells, in the microenvironment of MHC-II+ tumors. We ascribe this to what we believe to be a novel inhibitory function of FCRL6 engagement, identifying it as an immunotherapy target. These data suggest a MHC-II-mediated context-dependent mechanism of adaptive resistance to PD-1-targeting immunotherapy.

Melanoma response to anti-PD-L1 immunotherapy requires JAK1 signaling, but not JAK2.

Immunotherapies targeting programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) or its ligand, programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), dramatically improve the survival of melanoma patients. However, only ∼40% of treated patients demonstrate a clinical response to single-agent anti-PD-1 therapy. An intact tumor response to type-II interferon (i.e. IFN-γ) correlates with response to anti-PD-1, and patients with de novo or acquired resistance may harbor loss-of-function alterations in the JAK/STAT pathway, which lies downstream of the interferon gamma receptor (IFNGR1/2). In this study, we dissected the specific roles of individual JAK/STAT pathway members on the IFN-γ response, and identified JAK1 as the primary mediator of JAK/STAT signaling associated with IFN-γ-induced expression of antigen-presenting molecules MHC-I and MHC-II, as well as PD-L1 and the cytostatic response to IFN-γ. In contrast to the crucial role of JAK1, JAK2 was largely dispensable in mediating most IFN-γ effects. In a mouse melanoma model, inhibition of JAK1/2 in combination with anti-PD-L1 therapy partially blocked anti-tumor immunologic responses, while selective JAK2 inhibition appeared to augment therapy. Amplification of JAK/STAT signaling in tumor cells through genetic inhibition of the negative regulator PTPN2 potentiated IFN-γ response in vitro and in vivo, and may be a target to enhance immunotherapy efficacy.

DNA methyltransferase inhibition upregulates MHC-I to potentiate cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in breast cancer.

Potentiating anti-tumor immunity by inducing tumor inflammation and T cell-mediated responses are a promising area of cancer therapy. Immunomodulatory agents that promote these effects function via a wide variety of mechanisms, including upregulation of antigen presentation pathways. Here, we show that major histocompatibility class-I (MHC-I) genes are methylated in human breast cancers, suppressing their expression. Treatment of breast cancer cell lines with a next-generation hypomethylating agent, guadecitabine, upregulates MHC-I expression in response to interferon-γ. In murine tumor models of breast cancer, guadecitabine upregulates MHC-I in tumor cells promoting recruitment of CD8+ T cells to the microenvironment. Finally, we show that MHC-I genes are upregulated in breast cancer patients treated with hypomethylating agents. Thus, the immunomodulatory effects of hypomethylating agents likely involve upregulation of class-I antigen presentation to potentiate CD8+ T cell responses. These strategies may be useful to potentiate anti-tumor immunity and responses to checkpoint inhibition in immune-refractory breast cancers.

Melanoma-specific MHC-II expression represents a tumour-autonomous phenotype and predicts response to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy.

Anti-PD-1 therapy yields objective clinical responses in 30-40% of advanced melanoma patients. Since most patients do not respond, predictive biomarkers to guide treatment selection are needed. We hypothesize that MHC-I/II expression is required for tumour antigen presentation and may predict anti-PD-1 therapy response. In this study, across 60 melanoma cell lines, we find bimodal expression patterns of MHC-II, while MHC-I expression was ubiquitous. A unique subset of melanomas are capable of expressing MHC-II under basal or IFNγ-stimulated conditions. Using pathway analysis, we show that MHC-II(+) cell lines demonstrate signatures of 'PD-1 signalling', 'allograft rejection' and 'T-cell receptor signalling', among others. In two independent cohorts of anti-PD-1-treated melanoma patients, MHC-II positivity on tumour cells is associated with therapeutic response, progression-free and overall survival, as well as CD4(+) and CD8(+) tumour infiltrate. MHC-II(+) tumours can be identified by melanoma-specific immunohistochemistry using commercially available antibodies for HLA-DR to improve anti-PD-1 patient selection.

Biomolecular signatures of diabetic wound healing by structural mass spectrometry.

Wound fluid is a complex biological sample containing byproducts associated with the wound repair process. Contemporary techniques, such as immunoblotting and enzyme immunoassays, require extensive sample manipulation and do not permit the simultaneous analysis of multiple classes of biomolecular species. Structural mass spectrometry, implemented as ion mobility-mass spectrometry (IM-MS), comprises two sequential, gas-phase dispersion techniques well suited for the study of complex biological samples because of its ability to separate and simultaneously analyze multiple classes of biomolecules. As a model of diabetic wound healing, poly(vinyl alcohol) sponges were inserted subcutaneously into nondiabetic (control) and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats to elicit a granulation tissue response and to collect acute wound fluid. Sponges were harvested at days 2 or 5 to capture different stages of the early wound-healing process. Utilizing IM-MS, statistical analysis, and targeted ultraperformance liquid chromatography analysis, biomolecular signatures of diabetic wound healing have been identified. The protein S100-A8 was highly enriched in the wound fluids collected from day 2 diabetic rats. Lysophosphatidylcholine (20:4) and cholic acid also contributed significantly to the differences between diabetic and control groups. This report provides a generalized workflow for wound fluid analysis demonstrated with a diabetic rat model.

Splinting Strategies to Overcome Confounding Wound Contraction in Experimental Animal Models.

SIGNIFICANCE: Clinical healing by secondary intention frequently occurs in skin that is firmly anchored to underlying (human) connective tissue. Small animals (rodents) are extensively utilized to model human cutaneous wound healing, but they heal by wound contraction, a process that is limited in the human and confounds quantitative and qualitative evaluation of experimental wound repair. RECENT ADVANCES: To alleviate wound contraction in loose-skinned species, practical solutions include choosing anatomical sites with firmly attached dermis and subcutis (e.g., rabbit ear) or performing mechanical fixation of the skin by using one of a number of devices or splints. In each case, the wound volume remains relatively constant, allowing the histomorphometric or biomolecular quantification of the cellular response under well-controlled, experimental conditions. In addition, the defined aperture of the splinted wound allows the placement of a variety of materials, including scaffolds, cells, and biologically active formulations into the wound site in an effort to potentiate the healing response and abrogate scarring. In contrast, production of larger experimental wounds or the deliberate distraction of wound margins can be used to model a hypertrophic response. CRITICAL ISSUES: Device design parameters should consider ease of application, durability, and lack of interference with the normal influx of local and circulating cells to the wound site. FUTURE DIRECTIONS: Improved methods of securing flexible splints would provide a more efficient experimental platform. These devices could also incorporate optical or electronic sensors that report both the mechanical and physiological status of the healing.

Epigenetically altered wound healing in keloid fibroblasts.

Keloids are benign dermal tumors that form during wound healing in genetically susceptible individuals. The mechanism(s) of keloid formation is unknown and there is no satisfactory treatment. We have reported differences between fibroblasts cultured from normal scars and keloids that include a pattern of glucocorticoid resistance and altered regulation of genes in several signaling pathways associated with fibrosis, including Wnt and IGF/IGF-binding protein 5 (IGFBP5). As previously reported for glucocorticoid resistance, decreased expression of the Wnt inhibitor secreted frizzled-related protein 1 (SFRP1), matrix metalloproteinase 3 (MMP3), and dermatopontin (DPT), and increased expression of IGFBP5 and jagged 1 (JAG1) are seen only in fibroblasts cultured from the keloid nodule. In vivo, decreased expression of SFRP1 and SFRP2 and increased expression of IGFBP5 proteins are observed only in proliferative keloid tissue. There is no consistent difference in the replicative life span of normal and keloid fibroblasts, and the altered response to hydrocortisone (HC) and differential regulation of a subset of genes in standard culture medium are maintained throughout at least 80% of the culture lifetime. Preliminary studies using ChIP-chip analysis, Trichostatin A, and 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine further support an epigenetically altered program in keloid fibroblasts that includes an altered pattern of DNA methylation and histone acetylation.

Microarray analysis of cellular thermotolerance.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Previously, we have shown that a 43°C pretreatment can provide thermotolerance to a following, more severe, thermal stress at 45°C. Using cells that lack the Hsp70 gene, we have also shown that there is still some thermotolerance in the absence of HSP70 protein. The purpose of this study was to determine which genes play a role in thermotolerance by measuring viability and proliferation of the cells at 2 days after heating. Specifically, we wanted to understand which pathways may be responsible for protecting cells in the absence of HSP70. STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS: Murine embryonic fibroblast cells with and without Hsp70 (MEF(+/+) and MEF(-/-), respectively) were exposed to a mild heat shock of 43°C for 30 minutes in a constant temperature water bath. After 3 hours of recovery, RNA was harvested from three heated samples alongside three untreated controls using a MicroRNeasy kit with DNAse treatment. RNA quality was verified by an Agilent Bioanalyzer. The RNA was then converted to cDNA and hybridized to Affymetrix gene expression DNA microarrays. The genes that showed a twofold change (up or down) relative to unheated controls were filtered by t-test for significance at a threshold of P < 0.05 using Genespring software. Data were verified by qRT-PCR. Genes were then categorized based upon their ontology. RESULTS: While many genes were similarly upregulated, the main difference between cell types was an increase in transcription factors and nucleic acid binding proteins. Several genes known to be involved in the heat response were upregulated more than twofold (Hsp70, Hsp40, Hsp110, Hsp25, Atf3), however, another well studied heat responsive gene Hsp90 only increased by 1.5-fold under these conditions despite its role in thermotolerance. CONCLUSIONS: The data herein presents genetic pathways which are candidates for further study of pretreatment protocols in laser irradiation.

Tape underlayment rotary-node (TURN) valves for simple on-chip microfluidic flow control.

We describe a simple and reliable fabrication method for producing multiple, manually activated microfluidic control valves in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) devices. These screwdriver-actuated valves reside directly on the microfluidic chip and can provide both simple on/off operation as well as graded control of fluid flow. The fabrication procedure can be easily implemented in any soft lithography lab and requires only two specialized tools-a hot-glue gun and a machined brass mold. To facilitate use in multi-valve fluidic systems, the mold is designed to produce a linear tape that contains a series of plastic rotary nodes with small stainless steel machine screws that form individual valves which can be easily separated for applications when only single valves are required. The tape and its valves are placed on the surface of a partially cured thin PDMS microchannel device while the PDMS is still on the soft-lithographic master, with the master providing alignment marks for the tape. The tape is permanently affixed to the microchannel device by pouring an over-layer of PDMS, to form a full-thickness device with the tape as an enclosed underlayment. The advantages of these Tape Underlayment Rotary-Node (TURN) valves include parallel fabrication of multiple valves, low risk of damaging a microfluidic device during valve installation, high torque, elimination of stripped threads, the capabilities of TURN hydraulic actuators, and facile customization of TURN molds. We have utilized these valves to control microfluidic flow, to control the onset of molecular diffusion, and to manipulate channel connectivity. Practical applications of TURN valves include control of loading and chemokine release in chemotaxis assay devices, flow in microfluidic bioreactors, and channel connectivity in microfluidic devices intended to study competition and predator/prey relationships among microbes.

Molecular imaging-assisted optimization of hsp70 expression during laser-induced thermal preconditioning for wound repair enhancement.

Patients at risk for impaired healing may benefit from prophylactic measures aimed at improving wound repair. Several photonic devices claim to enhance repair by thermal and photochemical mechanisms. We hypothesized that laser-induced thermal preconditioning would enhance surgical wound healing that was correlated with hsp70 expression. Using a pulsed diode laser (lambda=1.85 microm, tau(p)=2 ms, 50 Hz, H=7.64 mJ cm(-2)), the skin of transgenic mice that contain an hsp70 promoter-driven luciferase was preconditioned 12 hours before surgical incisions were made. Laser protocols were optimized in vitro and in vivo using temperature, blood flow, and hsp70-mediated bioluminescence measurements as benchmarks. Biomechanical properties and histological parameters of wound healing were evaluated for up to 14 days. Bioluminescent imaging studies indicated that an optimized laser protocol increased hsp70 expression by 10-fold. Under these conditions, laser-preconditioned incisions were two times stronger than control wounds. Our data suggest that this molecular imaging approach provides a quantitative method for optimization of tissue preconditioning and that mild laser-induced heat shock may be a useful therapeutic intervention prior to surgery.

Cryogenic Etching of Silicon: An Alternative Method For Fabrication of Vertical Microcantilever Master Molds.

This paper examines the use of deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) of silicon with fluorine high-density plasmas at cryogenic temperatures to produce silicon master molds for vertical microcantilever arrays used for controlling substrate stiffness for culturing living cells. The resultant profiles achieved depend on the rate of deposition and etching of a SiO x F y polymer, which serves as a passivation layer on the sidewalls of the etched structures in relation to areas that have not been passivated with the polymer. We look at how optimal tuning of two parameters, the O2 flow rate and the capacitively coupled plasma (CCP) power, determine the etch profile. All other pertinent parameters are kept constant. We examine the etch profiles produced using e-beam resist as the main etch mask, with holes having diameters of 750 nm, 1 µm, and 2 µm.

In-vivo optical imaging of hsp70 expression to assess collateral tissue damage associated with infrared laser ablation of skin.

Laser surgical ablation is achieved by selecting laser parameters that remove confined volumes of target tissue and cause minimal collateral damage. Previous studies have measured the effects of wavelength on ablation, but neglected to measure the cellular impact of ablation on cells outside the lethal zone. In this study, we use optical imaging in addition to conventional assessment techniques to evaluate lethal and sublethal collateral damage after ablative surgery with a free-electron laser (FEL). Heat shock protein (HSP) expression is used as a sensitive quantitative marker of sublethal damage in a transgenic mouse strain, with the hsp70 promoter driving luciferase and green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression (hsp70A1-L2G). To examine the wavelength dependence in the mid-IR, laser surgery is conducted on the hsp70A1-L2G mouse using wavelengths targeting water (OH stretch mode, 2.94 microm), protein (amide-II band, 6.45 microm), and both water and protein (amide-I band, 6.10 microm). For all wavelengths tested, the magnitude of hsp70 expression is dose-dependent and maximal 5 to 12 h after surgery. Tissues treated at 6.45 microm have approximately 4x higher hsp70 expression than 6.10 microm. Histology shows that under comparable fluences, tissue injury at the 2.94-microm wavelength was 2x and 3x deeper than 6.45 and 6.10 microm, respectively. The 6.10-microm wavelength generates the least amount of epidermal hyperplasia. Taken together, this data suggests that the 6.10-microm wavelength is a superior wavelength for laser ablation of skin.

Short tail with skin lesion phenotype occurs in transgenic mice with keratin-14 promoter-directed expression of mutant CXCR2.

CXCR2 plays an important role during cutaneous wound healing. Transgenic mice were generated using the keratin-14 promoter/enhancer to direct expression of wild-type human CXCR2 (K14hCXCR2 WT) or mutant CXCR2, in which the carboxyl-terminal domain (CTD) was truncated at Ser 331 and the dileucine AP-2 binding motif was mutated to alanine (K14hCXCR2 331T/LL/AA/IL/AA). Our results indicate that K14hCXCR2WT transgenic mice exhibited a normal phenotype, while K14hCXCR2 331T/LL/AA/IL/AA transgenic mice were born with tails of normal length, but three to eight days after birth their tails degenerated, leaving only a short tail stub. The tissue degeneration in the tail started between caudal somites with degeneration of bone and connective tissue distal to the constriction, which was replaced with stromal tissue heavily infiltrated with inflammatory cells. The tail lesion site revealed coagulation in enlarged vessels and marked edema that eventually led to loss of the distal tail. Moreover, 66% of the mice exhibited focal skin blemishes and inflammation that exhibited an increase in the number of sebaceous glands and blood vessels, enlargement of the hair follicles due to increased number of keratinocytes, reduction in the connective tissue content, and a thickening of the epidermis. Furthermore, immunohistochemical staining of the epidermis from tail tissue in the transgenic mice indicated a loss of the cell adhesion markers E-cadherin and desmoplakin. These data suggest that keratinocyte expression of a CTD mutant of CXCR2 has effects on homeostasis of the connective tissue in the tail, as well as the maintenance of the epidermis and its appendages.