Spanish normative studies (NEURONORMA-Plus project): norms for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Modified Taylor Complex Figure, and the Ruff-Light Trail Learning Test.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aims to provide norms and age-, education-, and sex-adjusted data for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), the Modified Taylor Complex Figure (MTCF), and the Ruff-Light Trail Learning Test (RULIT) as part of the NEURONORMA-Plus project. METHODS: We recruited 308 cognitively healthy individuals aged between 18 and 92 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to age-adjusted scaled scores, as well as adjustments for education and sex after applying independent regression models in 2 age groups (< 50 and ≥ 50 years). RESULTS: Older age had a negative effect on performance in both age groups. We observed a positive effect of education on WCST performance in the younger group (< 50 years), and on all MTCF measures (with the exception of the recognition task) in the older group (≥ 50 years). Education had no impact on performance in the RULIT, although sex did, with a small but significant effect whereby young men showed higher performance for one variable. CONCLUSION: The normative data provided can contribute to the clinical interpretation of performance in these tests in the Spanish population.

Spanish normative studies (NEURONORMA-Plus project): norms for the Delis Kaplan-Design Fluency Test, Color Trails Test, and Dual Task.

INTRODUCTION: Complex attention and non-verbal fluency tasks are used in neuropsychological assessments with the aim of exploring subdomains of executive function. The purpose of this study is to provide norms and age-, education-, and sex-adjusted data for the Delis Kaplan-Design Fluency Test (DK-DFT), Color Trails Test (CTT), and Dual Task (DT) as part of the NEURONORMA-Plus project. METHODS: The sample included 308 cognitively unimpaired individuals aged between 18 and 92 years. Raw scores were converted to age-adjusted scaled scores. These were further converted into education- and sex-adjusted scaled scores by applying linear regression, with 2 age groups (< 50 and ≥ 50 years). RESULTS: Overall, age had a negative impact on DK-DFT and CTT performance. We observed a positive effect of education on DK-DFT scores only in the older group (≥ 50 years). Moreover, younger men performed slightly better in the basic condition of this test. Education was positively associated with all CTT scores in both age groups, with the exception of the CTT-1 subtest in the younger group. Age and education did not influence DT performance, whereas sex did, with young women performing slightly better. CONCLUSIONS: These normative data may be useful in the interpretation of neuropsychological assessments in the Spanish population.

Screening over Speech in Unselected Populations for Clinical Trials in AD (PROSPECT-AD): Study Design and Protocol.

BACKGROUND: Speech impairments are an early feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and consequently, analysing speech performance is a promising new digital biomarker for AD screening. Future clinical AD trials on disease modifying drugs will require a shift to very early identification of individuals at risk of dementia. Hence, digital markers of language and speech may offer a method for screening of at-risk populations that are at the earliest stages of AD, eventually in combination with advanced machine learning. To this end, we developed a screening battery consisting of speech-based neurocognitive tests. The automated test performs a remote primary screening using a simple telephone. OBJECTIVES: PROSPECT-AD aims to validate speech biomarkers for identification of individuals with early signs of AD and monitor their longitudinal course through access to well-phenotyped cohorts. DESIGN: PROSPECT-AD leverages ongoing cohorts such as EPAD (UK), DESCRIBE and DELCODE (Germany), and BioFINDER Primary Care (Sweden) and Beta-AARC (Spain) by adding a collection of speech data over the telephone to existing longitudinal follow-ups. Participants at risk of dementia are recruited from existing parent cohorts across Europe to form an AD 'probability-spectrum', i.e., individuals with a low risk to high risk of developing AD dementia. The characterization of cognition, biomarker and risk factor (genetic and environmental) status of each research participants over time combined with audio recordings of speech samples will provide a well-phenotyped population for comparing novel speech markers with current gold standard biomarkers and cognitive scores. PARTICIPANTS: N= 1000 participants aged 50 or older will be included in total, with a clinical dementia rating scale (CDR) score of 0 or 0.5. The study protocol is planned to run according to sites between 12 and 18 months. MEASUREMENTS: The speech protocol includes the following neurocognitive tests which will be administered remotely: Word List [Memory Function], Verbal Fluency [Executive Functions] and spontaneous free speech [Psychological and/ or behavioral symptoms]. Speech features on the linguistic and paralinguistic level will be extracted from the recordings and compared to data from CSF and blood biomarkers, neuroimaging, neuropsychological evaluations, genetic profiles, and family history. Primary candidate marker from speech will be a combination of most significant features in comparison to biomarkers as reference measure. Machine learning and computational techniques will be employed to identify the most significant speech biomarkers that could represent an early indicator of AD pathology. Furthermore, based on the analysis of speech performances, models will be trained to predict cognitive decline and disease progression across the AD continuum. CONCLUSION: The outcome of PROSPECT-AD may support AD drug development research as well as primary or tertiary prevention of dementia by providing a validated tool using a remote approach for identifying individuals at risk of dementia and monitoring individuals over time, either in a screening context or in clinical trials.

The CORCOBIA study: Cut-off points of Alzheimer's disease CSF biomarkers in a clinical cohort.

INTRODUCTION: The analysis of the core biomarkers of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is recommended in the clinical units where it is available. Because of the absence of universal validated values, the determination of specific cut-off points for each center and its population is recommended. The main objective of the CORCOBIA study was to determine the cut-off points of core AD CSF biomarkers for several centers (Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona and Hospital General de Granollers), which work with the same reference laboratory (Laboratori de Referència de Catalunya). METHODS: Prospective study including cognitively unimpaired individuals (CU, n = 42), subjects with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI, n = 35) and patients with dementia due to Alzheimer's Disease (AD, n = 48), in whom clinical and neuropsychological assessment, neuroimaging, APOE genotyping and lumbar puncture to analyse amyloid beta peptides (Aß42, Aß40), total tau (tTau) and phosphorylated Tau (pTau181) using the Lumipulse G600II (Fujirebio) was performed. The values of sensitivity (SE), specificity (SP), predictive values and area under the curve (AUC) were calculated, determining the cut-off point according to the Youden index by comparing the CU and AD groups. RESULTS: The resulting cut-offs and their AUC were the following: Aß42 750 pg/mL (AUC 0.809); Aß42/Aß40 0.062 (AUC 0.78); pTau181 69.85 pg/mL (AUC 0.81); tTau 522.0 pg/mL (AUC 0.79); Aß42/tTau 1.76 (AUC 0.86); Aß42/pTau181 10.25 (AUC 0.86). CONCLUSIONS: The determination of cut-off points of core AD CSF biomarkers for the participating centers allows a better diagnostic accuracy. The ratio CSF Aß42/pTau181 shows the highest AUC and better balance between sensitivity and specificity.

Development, equivalence study, and normative data of version B of the Spanish-language Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test.

INTRODUCTION: The Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (FCSRT) is widely used for the assessment of verbal episodic memory, mainly in patients with Alzheimer disease. A Spanish-language version of the FCSRT and normative data were developed within the NEURONORMA project. Availability of alternative, equivalent versions is useful for following patients up in clinical settings. This study aimed to develop an alternative version of the original FCSRT (version B) and to study its equivalence to the original Spanish-language test (version A), and its performance in a sample of healthy individuals, in order to develop reference data. METHODS: We evaluated 232 healthy participants of the NEURONORMA-Plus project, aged between 18 and 90. Thirty-three participants were assessed with both test versions using a counterbalanced design. RESULTS: High intra-class correlation coefficients (between 0.8 and 0.9) were observed in the equivalence study. While no significant differences in performance were observed in total recall scores, free recall scores were significantly lower for version B. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary results suggest that the newly developed FCSRT version B is equivalent to version A in the main variables tested. Further studies are necessary to ensure interchangeability between versions. We provide normative data for the new version.

Spanish normative studies (NEURONORMA-Plus project): norms for the Delis Kaplan-Design Fluency Test, Color Trails Test, and Dual Task. / Estudios normativos españoles (Proyecto NEURONORMA Plus): normas para las pruebas Delis Kaplan-Design Fluency Test (DK-DFT), Color Trails Tests (CTT) y Dual Task (DT).

INTRODUCTION: Complex attention and non-verbal fluency tasks are used in neuropsychological assessments with the aim of exploring subdomains of executive function. The purpose of this study is to provide norms and age-, education-, and sex-adjusted data for the Delis Kaplan-Design Fluency Test (DK-DFT), Color Trails Test (CTT), and Dual Task (DT) as part of the NEURONORMA-Plus project. METHODS: The sample included 308 cognitively healthy individuals aged between 18 and 92 years. Raw scores were converted to age-adjusted scaled scores. These were further converted into education- and sex-adjusted scaled scores by applying linear regression, with 2 age groups (< 50 and ≥ 50 years). RESULTS: Overall, age had a negative impact on DK-DFT and CTT performance. We observed a positive effect of education on DK-DFT scores only in the older group (≥ 50 years). Moreover, younger men performed slightly better in the basic condition of this test. Education was positively associated with all CTT scores in both age groups, with the exception of the CTT-1 subtest in the younger group. Age and education did not influence DT performance, whereas sex did, with young women performing slightly better. CONCLUSIONS: These normative data may be useful in the interpretation of neuropsychological assessments in the Spanish population.

Spanish normative studies (NEURONORMA-Plus project): norms for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Modified Taylor Complex Figure, and the Ruff-Light Trail Learning Test. / Estudios normativos españoles (proyecto NEURONORMA-Plus): Normas para el Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), la Figura Compleja Modificada de Taylor (FCMT) y el Ruff-Light Trail Learning Test (RULIT).

OBJECTIVE: The present study aims to provide norms and age-, education-, and sex-adjusted data for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), the Modified Taylor Complex Figure (MTCF), and the Ruff-Light Trail Learning Test (RULIT) as part of the NEURONORMA-Plus project. METHODS: We recruited 308 cognitively healthy individuals aged between 18 and 92 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to age-adjusted scaled scores, as well as adjustments for education and sex after applying independent regression models in 2 age groups (<50 and ≥50 years). RESULTS: Older age had a negative effect on performance in both age groups. We observed a positive effect of education on WCST performance in the younger group (<50 years), and on all MTCF measures (with the exception of the recognition task) in the older group (≥50 years). Education had no impact on performance in the RULIT, although sex did, with a small but significant effect whereby young men showed higher performance for one variable. CONCLUSION: The normative data provided can contribute to the clinical interpretation of performance in these tests in the Spanish population.

Desarrollo, estudio de equivalencia y datos normativos de la versión española B del Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test / Development, equivalence study, and normative data of version B of the Spanish-language Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test

Introducción: El test Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (FCSRT) es una prueba de uso extendido para evaluar la memoria episódica verbal, principalmente en el ámbito de la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Existe una versión española de la prueba con datos normativos proveniente del proyecto NEURONORMA.ES. Disponer de versiones alternativas equivalentes de las pruebas resulta útil para el seguimiento de los pacientes en la práctica clínica. El objetivo del presente estudio es ofrecer una versión alternativa a la original, denominada «B», estudiar su equivalencia con la versión original española (A) y el rendimiento en la misma de una muestra de sujetos para proporcionar datos de referencia.MétodosSe evaluaron 232 sujetos sanos de entre 18 y 90 años en el contexto del proyecto NEURONORMA-Plus. A 33 de ellos se les administraron ambas versiones con un diseño contrabalanceado.ResultadosEn el estudio de equivalencia se observaron coeficientes de correlación intraclase elevados (entre 0,8 y 0,9) y diferencias no significativas en las variables de recuerdo total. Sin embargo, sí se hallaron diferencias significativas en los ensayos de evocación libre, en los que el rendimiento en la nueva versión fue menor.ConclusionesLos resultados iniciales sugieren que la versión B del FCSRT aquí presentada resulta equivalente a la versión A en las variables principales de la prueba. Se requieren de futuros estudios para asegurar la total intercambiabilidad entre versiones. Se aportan datos normativos de la versión presentada. (AU)

Introduction: The Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (FCSRT) is widely used for the assessment of verbal episodic memory, mainly in patients with Alzheimer disease. A Spanish version of the FCSRT and normative data were developed within the NEURONORMA project. Availability of alternative, equivalent versions is useful for following patients up in clinical settings. This study aimed to develop an alternative version of the original FCSRT (version B) and to study its equivalence to the original Spanish test (version A), and its performance in a sample of healthy individuals, in order to develop reference data.MethodsWe evaluated 232 healthy participants of the NEURONORMA-Plus project, aged between 18 and 90. Thirty-three participants were assessed with both versions using a counterbalanced design.ResultsHigh intra-class correlation coefficients (between 0.8 and 0.9) were observed in the equivalence study. While no significant differences in performance were observed in total recall scores, free recall scores were significantly lower for version B.ConclusionsThese preliminary results suggest that the newly developed FCSRT version B is equivalent to version A in the main variables tested. Further studies are necessary to ensure interchangeability between versions. We provide normative data for the new version. (AU)

Comparative Analysis of Different Definitions of Amyloid-ß Positivity to Detect Early Downstream Pathophysiological Alterations in Preclinical Alzheimer.

Amyloid-ß (Aß) positivity is defined using different biomarkers and different criteria. Criteria used in symptomatic patients may conceal meaningful early Aß pathology in preclinical Alzheimer. Therefore, the description of sensitive cutoffs to study the pathophysiological changes in early stages of the Alzheimer's continuum is critical. Here, we compare different Aß classification approaches and we show their performance in detecting pathophysiological changes downstream Aß pathology. We studied 368 cognitively unimpaired individuals of the ALFA+ study, many of whom in the preclinical stage of the Alzheimer's continuum. Participants underwent Aß PET and CSF biomarkers assessment. We classified participants as Aß -positive using five approaches: (1) CSF Aß42 < 1098 pg/ml; (2) CSF Aß42/40 < 0.071; (3) Aß PET Centiloid > 12; (4) Aß PET Centiloid > 30 or (5) Aß PET Positive visual read. We assessed the correlations between Aß biomarkers and compared the prevalence of Aß positivity. We determined which approach significantly detected associations between Aß pathology and tau/neurodegeneration CSF biomarkers. We found that CSF-based approaches result in a higher Aß-positive prevalence than PET-based ones. There was a higher number of discordant participants classified as CSF Aß-positive but PET Aß-negative than CSF Aß-negative but PET Aß-positive. The CSF Aß 42/40 approach allowed optimal detection of significant associations with CSF p-tau and t-tau in the Aß-positive group. Altogether, we highlight the need for sensitive Aß -classifications to study the preclinical Alzheimer's continuum. Approaches that define Aß positivity based on optimal discrimination of symptomatic Alzheimer's disease patients may be suboptimal for the detection of early pathophysiological alterations in preclinical Alzheimer.

Nonlinear cerebral atrophy patterns across the Alzheimer's disease continuum: impact of APOE4 genotype.

The progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by complex trajectories of cerebral atrophy that are affected by interactions with age and apolipoprotein E allele ε4 (APOE4) status. In this article, we report the nonlinear volumetric changes in gray matter across the full biological spectrum of the disease, represented by the AD-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) index. This index reflects the subject's level of pathology and position along the AD continuum. We also evaluated the associated impact of the APOE4 genotype. The atrophy pattern associated with the AD-CSF index was highly symmetrical and corresponded with the typical AD signature. Medial temporal structures showed different atrophy dynamics along the progression of the disease. The bilateral parahippocampal cortices and a parietotemporal region extending from the middle temporal to the supramarginal gyrus presented an initial increase in volume which later reverted. Similarly, a portion of the precuneus presented a rather linear inverse association with the AD-CSF index whereas some other clusters did not show significant atrophy until index values corresponded to positive CSF tau values. APOE4 carriers showed steeper hippocampal volume reductions with AD progression. Overall, the reported atrophy patterns are in close agreement with those mentioned in previous findings. However, the detected nonlinearities suggest that there may be different pathological processes taking place at specific moments during AD progression and reveal the impact of the APOE4 allele.

Diagnostic validity of the Alzheimer's disease functional assessment and change scale in mild cognitive impairment and mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: The Alzheimer's Disease Functional Assessment and Change Scale (ADFACS) is a functional assessment instrument widely used in clinical research. AIMS: To test the diagnostic and concurrent validity of the Spanish version of this scale and to describe the functional deficit pattern for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia. METHODS: The ADFACS, the Interview for Deterioration in Daily Living Activities in Dementia (IDDD), and the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) were administered to 146 control subjects (CS) and 165 patients (67 MCI and 98 AD). Nonparametric tests were used to compare the diagnostic groups. Cronbach's α and correlations with the MMSE and the IDDD were calculated. Sensitivity, specificity and predictive values were studied. RESULTS: The ADFACS had a high internal consistency (α = 0.95). Three cutoff points of 1, 4, and 17 were provided to separate CS and MCI patients, MCI and mild AD patients, and mild AD and moderate AD patients, respectively. The ADFACS strongly correlated with functional (IDDD, 0.927) and cognitive (MMSE, 0.747) measures. A similar pattern of dysfunction, but in different grades, was found for the MCI and AD groups. CONCLUSION: The ADFACS is a reliable, valid, and sensitive instrument to assess functional abilities; it is useful in dementia assessment for elderly populations.

Estudios normativos españoles en población adulta joven (proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes): normas para las pruebas Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (copia y memoria) y Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test / Spanish normative studies in young adults ( NEURONORMA young adults project): norms for the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (copy and memory) and Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test

Introducción: El test Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) y el Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (FCSRT) son pruebas ampliamente utilizadas en la práctica clínica. El ROCF es de gran utilidad para la exploración de la percepción visual, la praxis constructiva y la memoria visuoespacial. El FCSRT evalúa aprendizaje y memoria verbal. Objetivo: En el presente estudio, que forma parte del proyecto de obtención de datos normativos españoles en adultos jóvenes (proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes), se aportan datos normativos ajustados por edad y escolaridad para ambos test mediante la aplicación de regresiones lineales. Material y métodos: Se incluyó a 179 participantes sanos de entre 18 y 49 años de edad. Se aportan tablas para convertir las puntuaciones brutas en escalares, así como tablas de ajuste por los factores sociodemográficos. Resultados: Los resultados obtenidos muestran influencia de la escolaridad en diversas variables de memoria y en la copia de la figura. La edad únicamente afecta el rendimiento en memoria visuoespacial y el efecto del género es despreciable. Conclusiones: Las referencias obtenidas son de gran utilidad clínica para la evaluación neuropsicológica de población adulta joven española (AU)

Introduction: The Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) and the Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (FCSRT) are widely used in clinical practice. The ROCF assesses visual perception, constructional praxis, and visuo-spatial memory. The FCSRT assesses verbal learning and memory. Objective: In this study, as part of the Spanish normative studies project in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults), we present age- and education-adjusted normative data for both tests obtained by using linear regression techniques. Material and methods: The sample consisted of 179 healthy participants ranging in age from 18 to 49 years. We provide tables for converting raw scores to scaled scores in addition to tables with scores adjusted by socio-demographic factors. Results: The results showed that education affects scores for some of the memory tests and the figure-copying task. Age was only found to have an effect on the performance of visuo-spatial memory tests, and the effect of sex was negligible. Conclusions: The normative data obtained will be extremely useful in the clinical neuropsychological evaluation of young Spanish adults (AU)

Estudios normativos españoles en población adulta joven (proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes): normas para las pruebas Stroop Color-Word Interference Test y Tower of London-Drexel University / Spanish normative studies in young adults ( NEURONORMA young adults project): norms for Stroop Color-Word Interference and Tower of London-Drexel University tests

Introducción: El Stroop Color-Word Interference Test (Stroop) se utiliza para explorar la flexibilidad mental, la atención selectiva, la inhibición cognitiva y la velocidad de procesamiento de la información. El test Tower of London-Drexel University version (TOLDX) es útil para explorar la habilidad para resolver problemas y la planificación. Objetivo: En el presente estudio, como parte de los estudios normativos españoles del proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes, se presentan datos normativos para el Stroop y la TOLDX. Material y métodos: La muestra está formada por 179 participantes, cognitivamente normales, de entre 18 y 49 años de edad. Se aportan tablas para convertir las puntuaciones brutas en escalares. Se aplican regresiones lineales para calcular los ajustes por factores sociodemográficos. Resultados: Se observó un efecto nulo de la edad y el género en ambas pruebas. La escolaridad influyó en la mayoría de variables del Stroop y en algunas medidas de la TOLDX (movimientos totales y tiempo de latencia). Conclusiones: Los datos normativos obtenidos son de gran utilidad clínica para la evaluación de población adulta joven española (AU)

Introduction: The Stroop Color-Word Interference Test (Stroop) measures cognitive flexibility, elective attention, cognitive inhibition and information processing speed. The Tower of London-Drexel University version test (TOLDX) assesses higher-order problem solving and executive planning abilities. Objective: In this study, as part of the Spanish normative studies project in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults), we present normative data for the Stroop and young adults TOLDX tests. Material and methods: The sample consisted of 179 participants who are cognitively normal and range in age from 18 to 49 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to scaled scores.Scores adjusted for sociodemographic factors were obtained by applying linear regression techniques. Results: No effects were found for age and sex in either test. Educational level impacted most of the Stroop test variables and some of the TOLDX scores (Total Moves score and Total Initiation Time score). Conclusions: The norms obtained will be extremely useful in the clinical evaluation of young Spanish adults (AU)

Estudios normativos españoles en población adulta joven (proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes): normas para los test de fluencia verbal / Spanish normative studies in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project): norms for verbal fluency tests

Introducción: Los test de fluencia verbal se utilizan con frecuencia en la práctica clínica con el fin de explorar el lenguaje y las funciones ejecutivas. Objetivo: En el presente estudio, como parte de los estudios normativos españoles del proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes, se aportan datos normativos ajustados por edad y escolaridad para 3 tareas de fluencia semántica (animales, frutas y verduras, y utensilios de cocina), 3 tareas de fluencia formal (palabras que empiezan por P, M, y R), 3 tareas de fluencia de letra excluida (palabras que no contienen A, E, y S) y una tarea de fluencia de verbos. Material y métodos: La muestra está formada por 179 participantes, cognitivamente normales, de entre 18 y 49 años de edad. Se aportan tablas para convertir las puntuaciones brutas en escalares y tablas para realizar los ajustes pertinentes por edad y escolaridad a partir de regresiones lineales. Resultados: Los resultados obtenidos muestran la influencia de la escolaridad para la mayoría de los test de fluencia verbal, escaso efecto de la edad y mínimo efecto del género. Conclusiones: Las normas obtenidas aportan datos de gran utilidad clínica para la evaluación de población adulta joven española(AU)

Introduction: Lexical fluency tests are frequently used in clinical practice to assess language and executive function. Objective: As part of the Spanish normative studies project in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project), we provide age- and education-adjusted normative data for 3 semantic fluency tasks (animals, fruits and vegetables, and kitchen tools), three formal lexical fluency tasks (words beginning with P, M and R), three excluded-letter fluency tasks (words excluding A, E and S) and a verb fluency task. Material and methods: The sample consisted of 179 participants who are cognitively normal and range in age from 18 to 49 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to scaled scores. Age- and education-adjusted scores are provided by applying linear regression techniques. Results: The results show that education impacted most of the verbal fluency test scores, with no effects related to age and only minimal effects related to sex. Conclusions: The norms obtained will be extremely useful in the clinical evaluation of young Spanish adults(AU)

Spanish normative studies in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project): norms for Stroop Color-Word Interference and Tower of London-Drexel University tests.

INTRODUCTION: The Stroop Color-Word Interference Test (Stroop) measures cognitive flexibility, selective attention, cognitive inhibition and information processing speed. The Tower of London-Drexel University version test (TOL) assesses higher-order problem solving and executive planning abilities. OBJECTIVE: In this study, as part of the Spanish normative studies project in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults), we present normative data for the Stroop and young adults TOL tests. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The sample consisted of 179 participants who are cognitively normal and range in age from 18 to 49 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to scaled scores. Scores adjusted for sociodemographic factors were obtained by applying linear regression techniques. RESULTS: No effects were found for age and sex in either test. Educational level impacted most of the Stroop test variables and some of the TOL scores (Total Moves score and Total Initiation Time score). CONCLUSIONS: The norms obtained will be extremely useful in the clinical evaluation of young Spanish adults.

Spanish normative studies in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project): norms for the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (copy and memory) and Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test.

INTRODUCTION: The Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) and the Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (FCSRT) are widely used in clinical practice. The ROCF assesses visual perception, constructional praxis, and visuo-spatial memory. The FCSRT assesses verbal learning and memory. OBJECTIVE: In this study, as part of the Spanish normative studies project in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults), we present age- and education-adjusted normative data for both tests obtained by using linear regression techniques. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The sample consisted of 179 healthy participants ranging in age from 18 to 49 years. We provide tables for converting raw scores to scaled scores in addition to tables with scores adjusted by socio-demographic factors. RESULTS: The results showed that education affects scores for some of the memory tests and the figure-copying task. Age was only found to have an effect on the performance of visuo-spatial memory tests, and the effect of sex was negligible. CONCLUSIONS: The normative data obtained will be extremely useful in the clinical neuropsychological evaluation of young Spanish adults.

Spanish normative studies in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project): norms for the Visual Object and Space Perception Battery and Judgment of Line Orientation tests.

INTRODUCTION: The Visual Object and Space Perception Battery (VOSP) and Judgment of Line Orientation tests (JLO) are used in clinical practice to assess visuoperceptual and visuospatial abilities. OBJECTIVE: In this study, as part of the Spanish normative studies project in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults), we present normative data for a short version of the VOSP test and for the JLO test. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The sample consisted of 179 participants who are cognitively normal and range in age from 18 to 49 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to scaled scores. Education- and sex-adjusted scores were obtained by applying linear regression techniques. RESULTS: Our results show that education and sex only affect scores on the JLO test, and that age has no effect. CONCLUSIONS: The normative data obtained will be extremely useful in the clinical evaluation of young Spanish adults.

Spanish normative studies in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project): norms for verbal fluency tests.

INTRODUCTION: Lexical fluency tests are frequently used in clinical practice to assess language and executive function. OBJECTIVE: As part of the Spanish normative studies project in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project), we provide age- and education-adjusted normative data for 3 semantic fluency tasks (animals, fruits and vegetables, and kitchen tools), three formal lexical fluency tasks (words beginning with P, M and R), three excluded-letter fluency tasks (words excluding A, E and S) and a verb fluency task. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The sample consisted of 179 participants who are cognitively normal and range in age from 18 to 49 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to scaled scores. Age- and education-adjusted scores are provided by applying linear regression techniques. RESULTS: The results show that education impacted most of the verbal fluency test scores, with no effects related to age and only minimal effects related to sex. CONCLUSIONS: The norms obtained will be extremely useful in the clinical evaluation of young Spanish adults.

Estudios normativos españoles en población adulta joven (Proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes): normas para el Boston Naming Test y el Token Test / Spanish normative studies in a young adult population (NEURONORMA young adults Project): Norms for the Boston Naming Test and the Token Test

Introducción: El Boston Naming Test (BNT) y el Token Test (TT) son pruebas ampliamente utilizadas en la práctica clínica para explorar la denominación y la comprensión.Objetivo: En este artículo se presentan los datos normativos del BNT y el TT obtenidos en el proyecto normativo español NEURONORMA jóvenes. Material y métodos: La muestra está formada por 179 sujetos sanos de entre 18 y 49 años de edad. Se aportan tablas para convertir las puntuaciones brutas en escalares y tablas con los ajustes pertinentes por edad y escolaridad obtenidas a partir de regresiones lineales. Resultados: Los resultados obtenidos muestran influencia de la escolaridad en ambos tests, pero un mínimo efecto de la edad y del género. Conclusiones: Las normas obtenidas aportan datos de gran utilidad clínica para la evaluación de población adulta joven esañola (AU)

Introduction: The Boston Naming Test (BNT) and the Token Test (TT) are frequently used in clinical practice to assess naming and comprehension. Objective: The aim of this paper is to present normative data for the BNT and for the TT as part of the NEURONORMA young adults Project. Material and methods: A total of 179 Spanish healthy subjects from 18 to 49 years old were evaluated. Tables to convert raw scores to scaled scores are provided. Age- and education- adjusted scores are obtained by applying linear regressions. Results:The results show an effect of education in both tests, and a minimal effect of age and sex.Conclusions: The normative data obtained will be useful in the clinical evaluation of young Spanish adults (AU)

Estudios normativos españoles en población adulta joven (Proyecto NEURONORMA jóvenes): normas para las pruebas span verbal, span visuoespacial, Letter-Number Sequencing, Trail Making Test y Symbol Digit Modalities Test / Spanish normative studies in a young adult population (NEURONORMA young adults Project): norms for the verbal span, visuospatial span, Letter-Number Sequencing, Trail Making Test and Symbol Digit Modalities Test

Introducción: El período verbales y El visuoespacial, la prueba de El letras y números de secuenciación , El Trail Making Test y El Símbolo Modalidades dígitos Prueba hijo Pruebas ampliamente utilizadas en la Práctica Clínica párrafo explorar la Atención, Funciones Ejecutivas y las la Memoria. Objetivo: En El Presente Estudio, Como instancia de parte de los Estudios normativos Españoles Inglés de Proyecto NEURONORMA Jóvenes, SE aportan Datos normativos ajustados Por EDAD y escolaridad Para Los DIGITOS, Los Cubos de Corsi, La Carta Número de Secuencia , El Trail Making Test Y El Symbol Digit Modalidades Prueba . Material y Métodos:La Muestra està formada Por 179 Participantes y cognitivamente Normales, de Entre 18 y 49 Años de Edad. Se aportan tablas párrafo convertir las puntuaciones brutas en escalares y tablas Con los ajustes pertinentes y escolaridad Por EDAD à partir de UNA regresión lineal. Resultados: Se observación Influencia de la escolaridad en la Mayoría de los pruebas de Atención Social, asi Como Efecto de la EDAD En El lapso de visuoespacial y en la VELOCIDAD de visuomotora tracking. El Efecto del Género es Mínimo. Conclusiones: Las Normas obtenidas aportan Datos de Gran Utilidad Clínica Para La evaluation de Población Adulta Joven española (AU)

Introduction: Verbal and visuospatial span, Letter-Number Sequencing, Trail Making Test, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test are frequently used in clinical practice to assess attention, executive functions and memory. Objective:In the present study, as part of the Spanish normative studies of NEURONORMA young adults Project, normative data adjusted by age and education are provided for digits, Corsi Block-Tapping Task, Letter-Number Sequencing, Trail Making Test, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test.Material and methods: The sample consisted of 179 participants from 18 to 49 years old, who were cognitively normal. Tables to convert raw scores to scaled scores are provided. Age and education adjusted scores are provided by applying linear regressions.Results: Education affected scores in most of the attention tests; age was found to be related to the visuospatial span and to speed of visuomotor tracking, and there was no relationship as regards sex. Conclusions: The data obtained will be useful in the clinical evaluation of young Spanish adults