Cost-efficient and user-friendly 17O/18O labeling procedures of fatty acids using mechanochemistry.

Two mechanochemical procedures for 17O/18O-isotope labeling of fatty acids are reported: a carboxylic acid activation/hydrolysis approach and a saponification approach. The latter route allowed first-time enrichment of important polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Overall, a total of 9 pure labeled products were isolated in high yields (≥80%) and with high enrichment levels (≥37% average labeling of C=O and C-OH carboxylic oxygen atoms), under mild conditions, and in short time (

Improved strategy for isoleucine 1H/13C methyl labeling in Pichia pastoris.

Site specific methyl labeling combined with methyl TROSY offers a powerful NMR approach to study structure and dynamics of proteins and protein complexes of high molecular weight. Robust and cost-effective methods have been developed for site specific protein 1H/13C methyl labeling in an otherwise deuterated background in bacteria. However, bacterial systems are not suitable for expression and isotope labeling of many eukaryotic and membrane proteins. The yeast Pichia pastoris (P. pastoris) is a commonly used host for expression of eukaryotic proteins, and site-specific methyl labeling of perdeuterated eukaryotic proteins has recently been achieved with this system. However, the practical utility of methyl labeling and deuteration in P. pastoris is limited by high costs. Here, we describe an improved method for 1H/13C-labeling of the δ-methyl group of isoleucine residues in a perdeuterated background, which reduces the cost by ≥ 50% without compromising the efficiency of isotope enrichment. We have successfully implemented this method to label actin and a G-protein coupled receptor. Our approach will facilitate studies of the structure and dynamics of eukaryotic proteins by NMR spectroscopy.

TMT Labeling for the Masses: A Robust and Cost-efficient, In-solution Labeling Approach.

Isobaric stable isotope labeling using, for example, tandem mass tags (TMTs) is increasingly being applied for large-scale proteomic studies. Experiments focusing on proteoform analysis in drug time course or perturbation studies or in large patient cohorts greatly benefit from the reproducible quantification of single peptides across samples. However, such studies often require labeling of hundreds of micrograms of peptides such that the cost for labeling reagents represents a major contribution to the overall cost of an experiment. Here, we describe and evaluate a robust and cost-effective protocol for TMT labeling that reduces the quantity of required labeling reagent by a factor of eight and achieves complete labeling. Under- and overlabeling of peptides derived from complex digests of tissues and cell lines were systematically evaluated using peptide quantities of between 12.5 and 800 µg and TMT-to-peptide ratios (wt/wt) ranging from 8:1 to 1:2 at different TMT and peptide concentrations. When reaction volumes were reduced to maintain TMT and peptide concentrations of at least 10 mm and 2 g/l, respectively, TMT-to-peptide ratios as low as 1:1 (wt/wt) resulted in labeling efficiencies of > 99% and excellent intra- and interlaboratory reproducibility. The utility of the optimized protocol was further demonstrated in a deep-scale proteome and phosphoproteome analysis of patient-derived xenograft tumor tissue benchmarked against the labeling procedure recommended by the TMT vendor. Finally, we discuss the impact of labeling reaction parameters for N-hydroxysuccinimide ester-based chemistry and provide guidance on adopting efficient labeling protocols for different peptide quantities.

Cost-effective large-scale expression of proteins for NMR studies.

We present protocols for high-level expression of isotope-labelled proteins in E. coli in cost-effective ways. This includes production of large amounts of unlabeled proteins and 13C-methyl methionine labeling in rich media, where yields of up to a gram of soluble protein per liter of culture are reached. Procedures for uniform isotope labeling of 2H, 13C and 15N using auto-induction or isopropyl-ß-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside-induction are described, with primary focus on minimal isotope consumption and high reproducibility of protein expression. These protocols are based on high cell-density fermentation, but the key procedures are easily transferred to shake flask cultures.

An economic approach to efficient isotope labeling in insect cells using homemade 15N-, 13C- and 2H-labeled yeast extracts.

Heterologous expression of proteins in insect cells is frequently used for crystallographic structural studies due to the high yields even for challenging proteins requiring the eukaryotic protein processing capabilities of the host. However for NMR studies, the need for isotope labeling poses extreme challenges in eukaryotic hosts. Here, we describe a robust method to achieve uniform protein (15)N and (13)C labeling of up to 90 % in baculovirus-infected insect cells. The approach is based on the production of labeled yeast extract, which is subsequently supplemented to insect cell growth media. The method also allows deuteration at levels of >60 % without decrease in expression yield. The economic implementation of the labeling procedures into a standard structural biology laboratory environment is described in a step-by-step protocol. Applications are demonstrated for a variety of NMR experiments using the Abelson kinase domain, GFP, and the beta-1 adrenergic receptor as examples. Deuterated expression of the latter provides spectra of very high quality of a eukaryotic G-protein coupled receptor.

New strategies for rapid (18)F-radiolabeling of biomolecules for radionuclide-based in vivo imaging.

The increasing availability of highly active no-carrier-added [(18)F]-fluoride makes its use in radiolabeling biomolecules attractive. By incorporating "fluorophilic" elements (Si, B, and Al) into biomolecules, recent advances offer mild and rapid (18)F-labeling approaches without HPLC purification at the radiosynthetic stage while maintaining sufficient specific activity. In this Topical Review, we will discuss the most recent strides in the field.

Cost-effective method for the preparation of uniformly labeled myristoylated proteins for NMR measurements.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a powerful technique for solving protein structures or studying their interactions. However, it requires molecules labeled with NMR sensitive isotopes like carbon (13)C and nitrogen (15)N. The recombinant expression of labeled proteins is simple to perform but requires quite expensive chemicals. When there is a need for special labeled chemicals, like uniformly (13)C-labeled myristic acid, the price significantly rises. Here we describe a cost-effective method for the recombinant expression of uniformly labeled myristoylated proteins in Escherichia coli demonstrated on the production of Mason-Pfizer monkey virus matrix protein. We used the ability of E. coli to naturally synthetize myristic acid. When grown in isotopically labeled medium the myristic acid will be labelled as well. Bacteria were co-transfected with plasmid carrying gene for yeast N-myristoyltransferase which ensures myristoylation of expressed protein. This process provided 1.8mg of the myristoylated, doubly labeled ((13)C/(15)N)M-PMV matrix protein from 1L of (15)N/(13)C labeled M9 medium. The price represents approximately 50% cost reduction of conventional method using commercially available [U-(13)C]myristic acid.

Stable isotope-assisted metabolomics for network-wide metabolic pathway elucidation.

The combination of high-resolution LC-MS-based untargeted metabolomics with stable isotope tracing provides a global overview of the cellular fate of precursor metabolites. This methodology enables detection of putative metabolites from biological samples and simultaneous quantification of the pattern and extent of isotope labeling. Labeling of Trypanosoma brucei cell cultures with 50% uniformly (13)C-labeled glucose demonstrated incorporation of glucose-derived carbon into 187 of 588 putatively identified metabolites in diverse pathways including carbohydrate, nucleotide, lipid, and amino acid metabolism. Labeling patterns confirmed the metabolic pathways responsible for the biosynthesis of many detected metabolites, and labeling was detected in unexpected metabolites, including two higher sugar phosphates annotated as octulose phosphate and nonulose phosphate. This untargeted approach to stable isotope tracing facilitates the biochemical analysis of known pathways and yields rapid identification of previously unexplored areas of metabolism.

MilQuant: a free, generic software tool for isobaric tagging-based quantitation.

Isobaric tagging techniques such as iTRAQ and TMT are widely used in quantitative proteomics and especially useful for samples that demand in vitro labeling. Due to diversity in choices of MS acquisition approaches, identification algorithms, and relative abundance deduction strategies, researchers are faced with a plethora of possibilities when it comes to data analysis. However, the lack of generic and flexible software tool often makes it cumbersome for researchers to perform the analysis entirely as desired. In this paper, we present MilQuant, mzXML-based isobaric labeling quantitator, a pipeline of freely available programs that supports native acquisition files produced by all mass spectrometer types and collection approaches currently used in isobaric tagging based MS data collection. Moreover, aside from effective normalization and abundance ratio deduction algorithms, MilQuant exports various intermediate results along each step of the pipeline, making it easy for researchers to customize the analysis. The functionality of MilQuant was demonstrated by four distinct datasets from different laboratories. The compatibility and extendibility of MilQuant makes it a generic and flexible tool that can serve as a full solution to data analysis of isobaric tagging-based quantitation.

Evaluation of stable isotope tracing for ZnO nanomaterials--new constraints from high precision isotope analyses and modeling.

This contribution evaluates two possible routes of stable isotope tracing for ZnO nanomaterials. For this we carried out the first high precision Zn isotope analyses of commercially available ZnO nanomaterials, to investigate whether such materials exhibit isotope fractionations that can be exploited for tracing purposes. These measurements revealed Zn isotopic compositions (of δ(66/64)Zn = +0.28 to -0.31‰ relative to JMC Lyon Zn) that are indistinguishable from "normal" natural and anthropogenic Zn in environmental samples. Stable isotope tracing therefore requires the application of purpose-made isotopically enriched ZnO nanoparticles. A detailed evaluation identified the most suitable and cost-effective labeling isotopes for different analytical requirements and techniques. It is shown that, using relatively inexpensive (68)Zn for labeling, ZnO nanoparticles can be reliably detected in natural samples with a Zn background of 100 µg/g at concentrations as low as about 5 ng/g, if the isotopic tracing analyses are carried out by high precision mass spectrometry. Stable isotope tracing may also be able to differentiate between the uptake by organisms of particulate ZnO and Zn(2+) ions from the dissolution of nanoparticles.

Microwave-assisted 18O-labeling of proteins catalyzed by formic acid.

Oxygen exchange may occur at carboxyl groups catalyzed by acid. The reaction, however, takes at least several days at room temperature. The long-time exchanging reaction often prevents its application from protein analysis. In this study, an (18)O-labeling method utilizing microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis was developed. After being dissolved in (16)O/(18)O (1:1) water containing 2.5% formic acid, protein samples were exposed to microwave irradiation. LC-MS/MS analysis of the resulted peptide mixtures indicated that oxygen in the carboxyl groups from glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and the C-terminal residues could be efficiently exchanged with (18)O within less than 15 min. The rate of back exchange was so slow that no detectable back exchange could be found during the HPLC run.

A cost-effective amino-acid-type selective isotope labeling of proteins expressed in Leishmania tarentolae.

We report a cost efficient approach for amino-acid-type selective isotope labeling of proteins expressed in Leishmania tarentolae. The method provides an economically advantageous alternative to recently established protocol for isotopic labeling using expensive synthetic media. The method is based on cultivation of the L. tarentolae expression strain in a cheap complex medium supplemented with labeled amino acid(s). In this protocol, a labeled amino acid is deliberately diluted in the medium of undefined composition, which leads to a low-level isotope enrichment upon protein over-expression. The economic advantage of the protocol is achieved by avoiding large volumes of expensive synthetic medium. Decreased sensitivity of a NMR experiment due to low-level isotope enrichment is compensated by a five- to seven-fold increase of the yield of the recombinant protein in complex medium as compared to that in the synthetic medium. In addition, the decreased sensitivity can be compensated by using a higher magnetic field, cryo-detection system or higher number of transients during the NMR data acquisition. We show that enrichment as low as 5% does not compromise a NMR experiment and makes preparation of the recombinant proteins over-expressed in L. tarentolae economically viable. The method is demonstrated by selective labeling of the approximately 27 kDa enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) with 15N-labeled valine.

Triplex protein quantification based on stable isotope labeling by peptide dimethylation applied to cell and tissue lysates.

Stable isotope labeling is at present one of the most powerful methods in quantitative proteomics. Stable isotope labeling has been performed at both the protein as well as the peptide level using either metabolic or chemical labeling. Here, we present a straightforward and cost-effective triplex quantification method that is based on stable isotope dimethyl labeling at the peptide level. Herein, all proteolytic peptides are chemically labeled at their alpha- and epsilon-amino groups. We use three different isotopomers of formaldehyde to enable the parallel analysis of three different samples. These labels provide a minimum of 4 Da mass difference between peaks in the generated peptide triplets. The method was evaluated based on the quantitative analysis of a cell lysate, using a typical "shotgun" proteomics experiment. While peptide complexity was increased by introducing three labels, still more than 1300 proteins could be identified using 60 microg of starting material, whereby more than 600 proteins could be quantified using at least four peptides per protein. The triplex labeling was further utilized to distinguish specific from aspecific cAMP binding proteins in a chemical proteomics experiment using immobilized cAMP. Thereby, differences in abundance ratio of more than two orders of magnitude could be quantified.

Cost-effective production of 13C, 15N stable isotope-labelled biomass from phototrophic microalgae for various biotechnological applications.

The present study outlines a process for the cost-effective production of 13C/15N-labelled biomass of microalgae on a commercial scale. The core of the process is a bubble column photobioreactor with exhaust gas recirculation by means of a low-pressure compressor. To avoid accumulation of dissolved oxygen in the culture, the exhaust gas is bubbled through a sodium sulphite solution prior to its return to the reactor. The engineered system can be used for the production of 13C, 15N, and 13C-15N stable isotope-labelled biomass as required. To produce 13C-labelled biomass, 13CO2 is injected on demand for pH control and carbon supply, whereas for 15N-labelled biomass Na15NO3 is supplied as nitrogen source at the stochiometric concentration. The reactor is operated in semicontinuous mode at different biomass concentrations, yielding a maximum mean biomass productivity of 0.3 gL(-1) day(-1). In order to maximize the uptake efficiency of the labelled substrates, the inorganic carbon is recovered from the supernatant by acidification/desorption processes, while the nitrate is delivered at stochiometric concentration and the harvesting of biomass is performed when the 15NO3- is depleted. In these conditions, elemental analysis of both biomass and supernatant shows that 89.2% of the injected carbon is assimilated into the biomass and 6.9% remains in the supernatant. Based on elemental analysis, 97.8% of the supplied nitrogen is assimilated into the biomass and 1.3% remains in the supernatant. Stable isotope-labelling enrichment has been analysed by GC-MS results showing that the biomass is highly labelled. All the fatty acids are labelled; more than 96% of the carbon present in these fatty acids is 13C. The engineered system was stably operated for 3 months, producing over 160 g of 13C and/or 15N-labelled biomass. The engineered bioreactor can be applied for the labelling of various microalgae.

Efficient 13C/15N double labeling of the avirulence protein AVR4 in a methanol-utilizing strain (Mut+) of Pichia pastoris.

Cost effective 13C/15N-isotope labeling of the avirulence protein AVR4 (10 kDa) of the fungal tomato pathogen Cladosporium fulvum was achieved with the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris in a fermentor. The 13C/15N-labeled AVR4 protein accumulated to 30 mg/L within 48 h in an initial fermentation volume of only 300 mL, while prolonged optimized overexpressions yielded 126 mg/L. These protein yields were 24-fold higher in a fermentor than in flask cultures. In order to achieve these protein expression levels, we used the methanol-utilizing strain (Mut+) of Pichia pastoris which has a high growth rate while growing on methanol as the only carbon source. In contrast, the methanol-sensitive strain (MutS) could intrinsically yield comparable protein expression levels, but at the expense of additional carbon sources. Although both strains are generally used for heterologous protein expression, we show that the costs for 13C-isotope labeling can be substantially reduced using the Mut+ strain compared to the MutS strain, as no 13C3-glycerol is required during the methanol-induction phase. Finally, nitrogen limitations were precluded for 15N-labeling by an optimal supply of 10 g/L (15NH4)2SO4 every 24 h.

A method for efficient isotopic labeling of recombinant proteins.

A rapid and efficient approach for preparing isotopically labeled recombinant proteins is presented. The method is demonstrated for 13C labeling of the C-terminal domain of angiopoietin-2, 15N labeling of ubiquitin and for 2H/13C/15N labeling of the Escherichia coli outer-membrane lipoprotein Lpp-56. The production method generates cell mass using unlabeled rich media followed by exchange into a small volume of labeled media at high cell density. Following a short period for growth recovery and unlabeled metabolite clearance, the cells are induced. The expression yields obtained provide a fourfold to eightfold reduction in isotope costs using simple shake flask growths.

Protocol development for biological tracer studies.

Improved instrumentation and the increased availability of labeled compounds have democratized the application of isotope-dilution (tracer) methodology in nutrient metabolism. Still, the most challenging aspects of tracer experimentation reside in the steps that precede the measurement of an isotopically labeled tracer, i.e. the design of a suitably labeled tracer and its isolation and purification from complex biological matrices. Construction of useful mathematical models of nutrient dynamics require methodologies that guarantee that the integrity of the tracer is maintained across the entire sampling and analyte isolation protocol. The ability to provide accurate and reliable data highlights a need for analytical chemists to play a central role in these studies. In this regard, examples and discussion of issues relevant to stable-isotope experimentation are provided.

[Antibody radiolabeling with technetium-99m]. / Radiomarcaje de anticuerpos con Tecnecio-99m.

Nowadays, labelled polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are widely used for immunoscintigraphic diagnosis of different diseases. Technetium-99m is often considered to be the label of choice for radioimmunodiagnosis for reasons of cost, availability and imaging properties, in spite of its relatively short physical half-life (6.01 h). The existing labelling methods may be classified into two types: direct approaches, in which disulphide bridges within are reduced to generate endogenous sulfhydryl groups able to efficiently bind technetium due to their strong chelating capacity and indirect methods, in which an exogenous chelator is covalently attached to the protein to serve as the binding site. All these procedures have their advantages and drawbacks. There is no consensus among the authors about which of the methods is the best. The employed approach depends on the particular situation. The aim of the present work is to show an update about the available procedures for 99mTc-labelling of antibodies and its fragments.