Statin-Sensitive Akt1/Src/Caveolin-1 Signaling Enhances Oxidative Stress Resistance in Rhabdomyosarcoma.

Identifying the molecular mechanisms underlying radioresistance is a priority for the treatment of RMS, a myogenic tumor accounting for approximately 50% of all pediatric soft tissue sarcomas. We found that irradiation (IR) transiently increased phosphorylation of Akt1, Src, and Cav1 in human RD and RH30 lines. Synthetic inhibition of Akt1 and Src phosphorylation increased ROS levels in all RMS lines, promoting cellular radiosensitization. Accordingly, the elevated activation of the Akt1/Src/Cav1 pathway, as detected in two RD lines characterized by overexpression of a myristoylated Akt1 form (myrAkt1) or Cav1 (RDCav1), was correlated with reduced levels of ROS, higher expression of catalase, and increased radioresistance. We found that treatment with cholesterol-lowering drugs such as lovastatin and simvastatin promoted cell apoptosis in all RMS lines by reducing Akt1 and Cav1 levels and increasing intracellular ROS levels. Combining statins with IR significantly increased DNA damage and cell apoptosis as assessed by γ histone 2AX (γH2AX) staining and FACS analysis. Furthermore, in combination with the chemotherapeutic agent actinomycin D, statins were effective in reducing cell survival through increased apoptosis. Taken together, our findings suggest that the molecularly linked signature formed by Akt1, Src, Cav1, and catalase may represent a prognostic determinant for identifying subgroups of RMS patients with higher probability of recurrence after radiotherapy. Furthermore, statin-induced oxidative stress could represent a treatment option to improve the success of radiotherapy.

DNA repair in tumor radioresistance: insights from fruit flies genetics.

BACKGROUND: Radiation therapy (RT) is a key anti-cancer treatment that involves using ionizing radiation to kill tumor cells. However, this therapy can lead to short- and long-term adverse effects due to radiation exposure of surrounding normal tissue. The type of DNA damage inflicted by radiation therapy determines its effectiveness. High levels of genotoxic damage can lead to cell cycle arrest, senescence, and cell death, but many tumors can cope with this damage by activating protective mechanisms. Intrinsic and acquired radioresistance are major causes of tumor recurrence, and understanding these mechanisms is crucial for cancer therapy. The mechanisms behind radioresistance involve processes like hypoxia response, cell proliferation, DNA repair, apoptosis inhibition, and autophagy. CONCLUSION: Here we briefly review the role of genetic and epigenetic factors involved in the modulation of DNA repair and DNA damage response that promote radioresistance. In addition, leveraging our recent results on the effects of low dose rate (LDR) of ionizing radiation on Drosophila melanogaster we discuss how this model organism can be instrumental in the identification of conserved factors involved in the tumor resistance to RT.

MYOD-SKP2 axis boosts tumorigenesis in fusion negative rhabdomyosarcoma by preventing differentiation through p57Kip2 targeting.

Rhabdomyosarcomas (RMS) are pediatric mesenchymal-derived malignancies encompassing PAX3/7-FOXO1 Fusion Positive (FP)-RMS, and Fusion Negative (FN)-RMS with frequent RAS pathway mutations. RMS express the master myogenic transcription factor MYOD that, whilst essential for survival, cannot support differentiation. Here we discover SKP2, an oncogenic E3-ubiquitin ligase, as a critical pro-tumorigenic driver in FN-RMS. We show that SKP2 is overexpressed in RMS through the binding of MYOD to an intronic enhancer. SKP2 in FN-RMS promotes cell cycle progression and prevents differentiation by directly targeting p27Kip1 and p57Kip2, respectively. SKP2 depletion unlocks a partly MYOD-dependent myogenic transcriptional program and strongly affects stemness and tumorigenic features and prevents in vivo tumor growth. These effects are mirrored by the investigational NEDDylation inhibitor MLN4924. Results demonstrate a crucial crosstalk between transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms through the MYOD-SKP2 axis that contributes to tumorigenesis in FN-RMS. Finally, NEDDylation inhibition is identified as a potential therapeutic vulnerability in FN-RMS.

ZFP750 affects the cutaneous barrier through regulating lipid metabolism.

An essential function of the epidermis is to provide a physical barrier that prevents the loss of water. Essential mediators of this barrier function include ceramides, cholesterol, and very long chain fatty acids, and their alteration causes human pathologies, including psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. A frameshift mutation in the human ZNF750 gene, which encodes a zinc finger transcription factor, has been shown to cause a seborrhea-like dermatitis. Here, we show that genetic deletion of the mouse homolog ZFP750 results in loss of epidermal barrier function, which is associated with a substantial reduction of ceramides, nonpolar lipids. The alteration of epidermal lipid homeostasis is directly linked to the transcriptional activity of ZFP750. ZFP750 directly and/or indirectly regulates the expression of crucial enzymes primarily involved in the biosynthesis of ceramides. Overall, our study identifies the transcription factor ZFP750 as a master regulator epidermal homeostasis through lipid biosynthesis and thus contributing to our understanding of the pathogenesis of several human skin diseases.

Spermine oxidase induces DNA damage and sensitizes fusion negative rhabdomyosarcoma cells to irradiation.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a pediatric myogenic soft tissue sarcoma that includes fusion-positive (FP) and fusion-negative (FN) molecular subtypes. FP-RMS expresses PAX3-FOXO1 fusion protein and often shows dismal prognosis. FN-RMS shows cytogenetic abnormalities and frequently harbors RAS pathway mutations. Despite the multimodal heavy chemo and radiation therapeutic regimens, high risk metastatic/recurrent FN-RMS shows a 5-year survival less than 30% due to poor sensitivity to chemo-radiotherapy. Therefore, the identification of novel targets is needed. Polyamines (PAs) such as putrescine (PUT), spermidine (SPD) and spermine (SPM) are low-molecular-mass highly charged molecules whose intracellular levels are strictly modulated by specific enzymes. Among the latter, spermine oxidase (SMOX) regulates polyamine catabolism oxidizing SPM to SPD, which impacts cellular processes such as apoptosis and DNA damage response. Here we report that low SMOX levels are associated with a worse outcome in FN-RMS, but not in FP-RMS, patients. Consistently, SMOX expression is downregulated in FN-RMS cell lines as compared to normal myoblasts. Moreover, SMOX transcript levels are reduced FN-RMS cells differentiation, being indirectly downregulated by the muscle transcription factor MYOD. Noteworthy, forced expression of SMOX in two cell lines derived from high-risk FN-RMS: 1) reduces SPM and upregulates SPD levels; 2) induces G0/G1 cell cycle arrest followed by apoptosis; 3) impairs anchorage-independent and tumor spheroids growth; 4) inhibits cell migration; 5) increases γH2AX levels and foci formation indicative of DNA damage. In addition, forced expression of SMOX and irradiation synergize at activating ATM and DNA-PKCs, and at inducing γH2AX expression and foci formation, which suggests an enhancement in DNA damage response. Irradiated SMOX-overexpressing FN-RMS cells also show significant decrease in both colony formation capacity and spheroids growth with respect to single approaches. Thus, our results unveil a role for SMOX as inhibitor of tumorigenicity of FN-RMS cells in vitro. In conclusion, our in vitro results suggest that SMOX induction could be a potential combinatorial approach to sensitize FN-RMS to ionizing radiation and deserve further in-depth studies.

DNA Damage Response Gene Signature as Potential Treatment Markers for Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a rapidly progressive cancer that often develops resistance against DNA damage inducers, such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy, which are still the standard of care regimens for this tumor. Thus, the identification of biomarkers capable of monitoring the clinical progression of OSCC and its responsiveness to therapy is strongly required. To meet this need, here we have employed Whole Genome Sequencing and RNA-seq data from a cohort of 316 patients retrieved from the TCGA Pan-Cancer Atlas to analyze the genomic and transcriptomic status of the DNA damage response (DDR) genes in OSCC. Then, we correlated the transcriptomic data with the clinical parameters of each patient. Finally, we relied on transcriptomic and drug sensitivity data from the CTRP v2 portal, performing Pearson's correlation analysis to identify putative vulnerabilities of OSCC cell lines correlated with DDR gene expression. Our results indicate that several DDR genes show a high frequency of genomic and transcriptomic alterations and that the expression of some of them correlates with OSCC grading and infection by the human papilloma virus. In addition, we have identified a signature of eight DDR genes (namely CCNB1, CCNB2, CDK2, CDK4, CHECK1, E2F1, FANCD2, and PRKDC) that could be predictive for OSCC response to the novel antitumor compounds sorafenib and tipifarnib-P1. Altogether, our data demonstrate that alterations in DDR genes could have an impact on the biology of OSCC. Moreover, here we propose a DDR gene signature whose expression could be predictive of OSCC responsiveness to therapy.

The botanical drug PBI-05204, a supercritical CO2 extract of Nerium oleander, sensitizes alveolar and embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma to radiotherapy in vitro and in vivo.

Treatment of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), the most common a soft tissue sarcoma in childhood, provides intensive multimodal therapy, with radiotherapy (RT) playing a critical role for local tumor control. However, since RMS efficiently activates mechanisms of resistance to therapies, despite improvements, the prognosis remains still largely unsatisfactory, mainly in RMS expressing chimeric oncoproteins PAX3/PAX7-FOXO1, and fusion-positive (FP)-RMS. Cardiac glycosides (CGs), plant-derived steroid-like compounds with a selective inhibitory activity of the Na+/K+-ATPase pump (NKA), have shown antitumor and radio-sensitizing properties. Herein, the therapeutic properties of PBI-05204, an extract from Nerium oleander containing the CG oleandrin already studied in phase I and II clinical trials for cancer patients, were investigated, in vitro and in vivo, against FN- and FP-RMS cancer models. PBI-05204 induced growth arrest in a concentration dependent manner, with FP-RMS being more sensitive than FN-RMS, by differently regulating cell cycle regulators and commonly upregulating cell cycle inhibitors p21Waf1/Cip1 and p27Cip1/Kip1. Furthermore, PBI-05204 concomitantly induced cell death on both RMS types and senescence in FN-RMS. Notably, PBI-05204 counteracted in vitro migration and invasion abilities and suppressed the formation of spheroids enriched in CD133+ cancer stem cells (CSCs). PBI-05204 sensitized both cell types to RT by improving the ability of RT to induce G2 growth arrest and counteracting the RT-induced activation of both Non-Homologous End-Joining and homologous recombination DSBs repair pathways. Finally, the antitumor and radio-sensitizing proprieties of PBI-05204 were confirmed in vivo. Notably, both in vitro and in vivo evidence confirmed the higher sensitivity to PBI-05204 of FP-RMS. Thus, PBI-05204 represents a valid radio-sensitizing agent for the treatment of RMS, including the intrinsically radio-resistant FP-RMS.

Translational Implications for Radiosensitizing Strategies in Rhabdomyosarcoma.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma of childhood and adolescence that includes FP-RMS, harboring the fusion oncoprotein PAX3/7-FOXO1 and FN-RMS, often mutant in the RAS pathway. Risk stratifications of RMS patients determine different prognostic groups and related therapeutic treatment. Current multimodal therapeutic strategies involve surgery, chemotherapy (CHT) and radiotherapy (RT), but despite the deeper knowledge of response mechanisms underpinning CHT treatment and the technological improvements that characterize RT, local failures and recurrence frequently occur. This review sums up the RMS classification and the management of RMS patients, with special attention to RT treatment and possible radiosensitizing strategies for RMS tumors. Indeed, RMS radioresistance is a clinical problem and further studies aimed at dissecting radioresistant molecular mechanisms are needed to identify specific targets to hit, thus improving RT-induced cytotoxicity.

Radioresistance in rhabdomyosarcomas: Much more than a question of dose.

Management of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), the most common soft tissue sarcoma in children, frequently accounting the genitourinary tract is complex and requires a multimodal therapy. In particular, as a consequence of the advancement in dose conformity technology, radiation therapy (RT) has now become the standard therapeutic option for patients with RMS. In the clinical practice, dose and timing of RT are adjusted on the basis of patients' risk stratification to reduce late toxicity and side effects on normal tissues. However, despite the substantial improvement in cure rates, local failure and recurrence frequently occur. In this review, we summarize the general principles of the treatment of RMS, focusing on RT, and the main molecular pathways and specific proteins involved into radioresistance in RMS tumors. Specifically, we focused on DNA damage/repair, reactive oxygen species, cancer stem cells, and epigenetic modifications that have been reported in the context of RMS neoplasia in both in vitro and in vivo studies. The precise elucidation of the radioresistance-related molecular mechanisms is of pivotal importance to set up new more effective and tolerable combined therapeutic approaches that can radiosensitize cancer cells to finally ameliorate the overall survival of patients with RMS, especially for the most aggressive subtypes.

Hyperactive Akt1 Signaling Increases Tumor Progression and DNA Repair in Embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma RD Line and Confers Susceptibility to Glycolysis and Mevalonate Pathway Inhibitors.

In pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), elevated Akt signaling is associated with increased malignancy. Here, we report that expression of a constitutively active, myristoylated form of Akt1 (myrAkt1) in human RMS RD cells led to hyperactivation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K) pathway, resulting in the loss of both MyoD and myogenic capacity, and an increase of Ki67 expression due to high cell mitosis. MyrAkt1 signaling increased migratory and invasive cell traits, as detected by wound healing, zymography, and xenograft zebrafish assays, and promoted repair of DNA damage after radiotherapy and doxorubicin treatments, as revealed by nuclear detection of phosphorylated H2A histone family member X (γH2AX) through activation of DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK). Treatment with synthetic inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and Akt was sufficient to completely revert the aggressive cell phenotype, while the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin failed to block cell dissemination. Furthermore, we found that pronounced Akt1 signaling increased the susceptibility to cell apoptosis after treatments with 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) and lovastatin, enzymatic inhibitors of hexokinase, and 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), especially in combination with radiotherapy and doxorubicin. In conclusion, these data suggest that restriction of glucose metabolism and the mevalonate pathway, in combination with standard therapy, may increase therapy success in RMS tumors characterized by a dysregulated Akt signaling.

MET Inhibition Sensitizes Rhabdomyosarcoma Cells to NOTCH Signaling Suppression.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a pediatric myogenic soft tissue sarcoma. The Fusion-Positive (FP) subtype expresses the chimeric protein PAX3-FOXO1 (P3F) while the Fusion-Negative (FN) is devoid of any gene translocation. FP-RMS and metastatic FN-RMS are often unresponsive to conventional therapy. Therefore, novel therapeutic approaches are needed to halt tumor progression. NOTCH signaling has oncogenic functions in RMS and its pharmacologic inhibition through γ-secretase inhibitors blocks tumor growth in vitro and in vivo. Here, we show that NOTCH signaling blockade resulted in the up-regulation and phosphorylation of the MET oncogene in both RH30 (FP-RMS) and RD (FN-RMS) cell lines. Pharmacologic inhibition of either NOTCH or MET signaling slowed proliferation and restrained cell survival compared to control cells partly by increasing Annexin V and CASP3/7 activation. Co-treatment with NOTCH and MET inhibitors significantly amplified these effects and enhanced PARP1 cleavage in both cell lines. Moreover, it severely hampered cell migration, colony formation, and anchorage-independent growth compared to single-agent treatments in both cell lines and significantly prevented the growth of FN-RMS cells grown as spheroids. Collectively, our results unveil the overexpression of the MET oncogene by NOTCH signaling targeting in RMS cells and show that MET pathway blockade sensitizes them to NOTCH inhibition.

Novel non-covalent LSD1 inhibitors endowed with anticancer effects in leukemia and solid tumor cellular models.

LSD1 is a histone lysine demethylase proposed as therapeutic target in cancer. Chemical modifications applied at C2, C4 and/or C7 positions of the quinazoline core of the previously reported dual LSD1/G9a inhibitor 1 led to a series of non-covalent, highly active, and selective LSD1 inhibitors (2-4 and 6-30) and to the dual LSD1/G9a inhibitor 5 that was more potent than 1 against LSD1. In THP-1 and MV4-11 leukemic cells, the most potent compounds (7, 8, and 29) showed antiproliferative effects at sub-micromolar level without significant toxicity at 1 µM in non-cancer AHH-1 cells. In MV4-11 cells, the new derivatives increased the levels of the LSD1 histone mark H3K4me2 and induced the re-expression of the CD86 gene silenced by LSD1, thereby confirming the inhibition of LSD1 at cellular level. In breast MDA-MB-231 as well as in rhabdomyosarcoma RD and RH30 cells, taken as examples of solid tumors, the same compounds displayed cell growth arrest in the same IC50 range, highlighting a crucial anticancer role for LSD1 inhibition and suggesting no added value for the simultaneous G9a inhibition in these tumor cell lines.

New Insights on the Nuclear Functions and Targeting of FAK in Cancer.

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase over-expressed and activated in both adult and pediatric cancers, where it plays important roles in the regulation of pathogenesis and progression of the malignant phenotype. FAK exerts its functions in cancer by two different ways: a kinase activity in the cytoplasm, mainly dependent on the integrin signaling, and a scaffolding activity into the nucleus by networking with different gene expression regulators. For this reason, FAK has to be considered a target with high therapeutic values. Indeed, evidence suggests that FAK targeting could be effective, either alone or in combination, with other already available treatments. Here, we propose an overview of the novel insights about FAK's structure and nuclear functions, with a special focus on the recent findings concerning the roles of this protein in cancer. Additionally, we provide a recent update on FAK inhibitors that are currently in clinical trials for patients with cancer, and discuss the challenge and future directions of drug-based anti-FAK targeted therapies.

DNMT3A and DNMT3B Targeting as an Effective Radiosensitizing Strategy in Embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma in childhood. Recently, we demonstrated the overexpression of both DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A) and 3B (DNMT3B) in RMS tumour biopsies and cell lines compared to normal skeletal muscle. Radiotherapy may often fail due to the abnormal expression of some molecules able to drive resistance mechanisms. The aim of this study was to analyse the involvement of DNMT3A and DNMT3B in radioresistance in RMS. RNA interference experiments against DNMT3A/3B were performed in embryonal RMS cells, upon ionizing radiation (IR) exposure and the effects of the combined treatment on RMS cells were analysed. DNMT3A and DNMT3B knocking down increased the sensitivity of RMS cells to IR, as indicated by the drastic decrease of colony formation ability. Interestingly, DNMT3A/3B act in two different ways: DNMT3A silencing triggers the cellular senescence program by up-regulating p16 and p21, whilst DNMT3B depletion induces significant DNA damage and impairs the DNA repair machinery (ATM, DNA-PKcs and Rad51 reduction). Our findings demonstrate for the first time that DNMT3A and DNMT3B overexpression may contribute to radiotherapy failure, and their inhibition might be a promising radiosensitizing strategy, mainly in the treatment of patients with metastatic or recurrent RMS tumours.

MS-275 (Entinostat) Promotes Radio-Sensitivity in PAX3-FOXO1 Rhabdomyosarcoma Cells.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma of childhood. About 25% of RMS expresses fusion oncoproteins such as PAX3/PAX7-FOXO1 (fusion-positive, FP) while fusion-negative (FN)-RMS harbors RAS mutations. Radiotherapy (RT) plays a crucial role in local control but metastatic RMS is often radio-resistant. HDAC inhibitors (HDACi) radio-sensitize different cancer cells types. Thus, we evaluated MS-275 (Entinostat), a Class I and IV HDACi, in combination with RT on RMS cells in vitro and in vivo. MS-275 reversibly hampered cell survival in vitro in FN-RMS RD (RASmut) and irreversibly in FP-RMS RH30 cell lines down-regulating cyclin A, B, and D1, up-regulating p21 and p27 and reducing ERKs activity, and c-Myc expression in RD and PI3K/Akt/mTOR activity and N-Myc expression in RH30 cells. Further, MS-275 and RT combination reduced colony formation ability of RH30 cells. In both cell lines, co-treatment increased DNA damage repair inhibition and reactive oxygen species formation, down-regulated NRF2, SOD, CAT and GPx4 anti-oxidant genes and improved RT ability to induce G2 growth arrest. MS-275 inhibited in vivo growth of RH30 cells and completely prevented the growth of RT-unresponsive RH30 xenografts when combined with radiation. Thus, MS-275 could be considered as a radio-sensitizing agent for the treatment of intrinsically radio-resistant PAX3-FOXO1 RMS.

Small heat-shock protein HSPB3 promotes myogenesis by regulating the lamin B receptor.

One of the critical events that regulates muscle cell differentiation is the replacement of the lamin B receptor (LBR)-tether with the lamin A/C (LMNA)-tether to remodel transcription and induce differentiation-specific genes. Here, we report that localization and activity of the LBR-tether are crucially dependent on the muscle-specific chaperone HSPB3 and that depletion of HSPB3 prevents muscle cell differentiation. We further show that HSPB3 binds to LBR in the nucleoplasm and maintains it in a dynamic state, thus promoting the transcription of myogenic genes, including the genes to remodel the extracellular matrix. Remarkably, HSPB3 overexpression alone is sufficient to induce the differentiation of two human muscle cell lines, LHCNM2 cells, and rhabdomyosarcoma cells. We also show that mutant R116P-HSPB3 from a myopathy patient with chromatin alterations and muscle fiber disorganization, forms nuclear aggregates that immobilize LBR. We find that R116P-HSPB3 is unable to induce myoblast differentiation and instead activates the unfolded protein response. We propose that HSPB3 is a specialized chaperone engaged in muscle cell differentiation and that dysfunctional HSPB3 causes neuromuscular disease by deregulating LBR.

Romidepsin (FK228) fails in counteracting the transformed phenotype of rhabdomyosarcoma cells but efficiently radiosensitizes, in vitro and in vivo, the alveolar phenotype subtype.

PURPOSE: Herein we describe the in vitro and in vivo activity of FK228 (Romidepsin), an inhibitor of class I HDACs, in counteracting and radiosensitizing embryonal (ERMS, fusion-negative) and alveolar (ARMS, fusion-positive) rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS). METHODS: RH30 (ARMS, fusion-positive) and RD (ERMS, fusion-negative) cell lines and human multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (HMSC) were used. Flow cytometry analysis, RT-qPCR, western blotting and enzymatic assays were performed. Irradiation was delivered by using an x-6 MV photon linear accelerator. FK228 (1.2 mg/kg) in vivo activity, combined or not with radiation therapy (2 Gy), was assessed in murine xenografts. RESULTS: Compared to HMSC, RMS expressed low levels of class I HDACs. In vitro, FK228, as single agents, reversibly downregulated class I HDACs expression and activity and induced oxidative stress, DNA damage and a concomitant growth arrest associated with PARP-1-mediated transient non-apoptotic cell death. Surviving cells upregulated the expression of cyclin A, B, D1, p27, Myc and activated PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK signaling, known to be differently involved in cancer chemoresistance. Interestingly, while no radiosensitizing effects were detected, in vitro or in vivo, on RD cells, FK228 markedly radiosensitized RH30 cells by impairing antioxidant and DSBs repair pathways in vitro. Further, FK228 when combined with RT in vivo significantly reduced tumor mass in mouse RH30 xenografts. CONCLUSION: FK228 did not show antitumor activity as a single agent whilst its combination with RT resulted in radiosensitization of fusion-positive RMS cells, thus representing a possible strategy for the treatment of the most aggressive RMS subtype.

Interaction between SNAI2 and MYOD enhances oncogenesis and suppresses differentiation in Fusion Negative Rhabdomyosarcoma.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is an aggressive pediatric malignancy of the muscle, that includes Fusion Positive (FP)-RMS harboring PAX3/7-FOXO1 and Fusion Negative (FN)-RMS commonly with RAS pathway mutations. RMS express myogenic master transcription factors MYOD and MYOG yet are unable to terminally differentiate. Here, we report that SNAI2 is highly expressed in FN-RMS, is oncogenic, blocks myogenic differentiation, and promotes growth. MYOD activates SNAI2 transcription via super enhancers with striped 3D contact architecture. Genome wide chromatin binding analysis demonstrates that SNAI2 preferentially binds enhancer elements and competes with MYOD at a subset of myogenic enhancers required for terminal differentiation. SNAI2 also suppresses expression of a muscle differentiation program modulated by MYOG, MEF2, and CDKN1A. Further, RAS/MEK-signaling modulates SNAI2 levels and binding to chromatin, suggesting that the differentiation blockade by oncogenic RAS is mediated in part by SNAI2. Thus, an interplay between SNAI2, MYOD, and RAS prevents myogenic differentiation and promotes tumorigenesis.

The ZNF750-RAC1 axis as potential prognostic factor for breast cancer.

The human zinc finger (C2H2-type) protein ZNF750 is a transcription factor regulated by p63 that plays a critical role in epithelial tissues homoeostasis, as well as being involved in the pathogenesis of cancer. Indeed, missense mutations, truncation and genomic deletion have been found in oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma. In keeping, we showed that ZNF750 negatively regulates cell migration and invasion in breast cancer cells; in particular, ZNF750 binds and recruits KDM1A and HDAC1 on the LAMB3 and CTNNAL1 promoters. This interaction, in turn, represses the transcription of LAMB3 and CTNNAL1 genes, which are involved in cell migration and invasion. Given that ZNF750 is emerging as a crucial transcription factor that acts as tumour suppressor gene, here, we show that ZNF750 represses the expression of the small GTPase, Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (RAC1) in breast cancer cell lines, by directly binding its promoter region. In keeping with ZNF750 controlling RAC1 expression, we found an inverse correlation between ZNF750 and RAC1 in human breast cancer datasets. More importantly, we found a significant upregulation of RAC1 in human breast cancer datasets and we identified a direct correlation between RAC1 expression and the survival rate of breast cancer patient. Overall, our findings provide a novel molecular mechanism by which ZNF750 acts as tumour suppressor gene. Hence, we report a potential clinical relevance of ZNF750/RAC1 axis in breast cancer.

FAK Signaling in Rhabdomyosarcoma.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma of children and adolescents. The fusion-positive (FP)-RMS variant expressing chimeric oncoproteins such as PAX3-FOXO1 and PAX7-FOXO1 is at high risk. The fusion negative subgroup, FN-RMS, has a good prognosis when non-metastatic. Despite a multimodal therapeutic approach, FP-RMS and metastatic FN-RMS often show a dismal prognosis with 5-year survival of less than 30%. Therefore, novel targets need to be discovered to develop therapies that halt tumor progression, reducing long-term side effects in young patients. Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase that regulates focal contacts at the cellular edges. It plays a role in cell motility, survival, and proliferation in response to integrin and growth factor receptors' activation. FAK is often dysregulated in cancer, being upregulated and/or overactivated in several adult and pediatric tumor types. In RMS, both in vitro and preclinical studies point to a role of FAK in tumor cell motility/invasion and proliferation, which is inhibited by FAK inhibitors. In this review, we summarize the data on FAK expression and modulation in RMS. Moreover, we give an overview of the approaches to inhibit FAK in both preclinical and clinical cancer settings.