S. aureus drives itch and scratch-induced skin damage through a V8 protease-PAR1 axis.

Itch is an unpleasant sensation that evokes a desire to scratch. The skin barrier is constantly exposed to microbes and their products. However, the role of microbes in itch generation is unknown. Here, we show that Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterial pathogen associated with itchy skin diseases, directly activates pruriceptor sensory neurons to drive itch. Epicutaneous S. aureus exposure causes robust itch and scratch-induced damage. By testing multiple isogenic bacterial mutants for virulence factors, we identify the S. aureus serine protease V8 as a critical mediator in evoking spontaneous itch and alloknesis. V8 cleaves proteinase-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) on mouse and human sensory neurons. Targeting PAR1 through genetic deficiency, small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown, or pharmacological blockade decreases itch and skin damage caused by V8 and S. aureus exposure. Thus, we identify a mechanism of action for a pruritogenic bacterial factor and demonstrate the potential of inhibiting V8-PAR1 signaling to treat itch.

Discovery of Ghrelin(1-8) Analogues with Improved Stability and Functional Activity for PET Imaging.

The highest affinity ghrelin-based analogue for fluorine-18 positron emission tomography, [Inp1,Dpr3(6-FN),1Nal4,Thr8]ghrelin(1-8) amide (1), has remarkable subnanomolar receptor affinity (IC50 = 0.11 nM) toward the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR). However, initial in vivo PET imaging and biodistribution of [18F]1 in mice demonstrated an unfavorable pharmacokinetic profile with rapid clearance and accumulation in liver and intestinal tissue, prompting concerns about the metabolic stability of this probe. The aims of the present study were to examine the proteolytic stability of ghrelin analogue 1 in the presence of blood and liver enzymes, structurally modify the peptide to improve stability without impeding the strong binding affinity, and measure the presently unknown functional activity of ghrelin(1-8) analogues. The in vitro stability and metabolite formation of 1 in human serum and liver S9 fraction revealed a metabolic soft spot between amino acids Leu5 and Ser6 in the peptide sequence. A focused library of ghrelin(1-8) analogues was synthesized and evaluated in a structure-activity-stability relationship study to further understand the structural importance of the residues at these positions in the context of stability and receptor affinity. The critical nature of l-stereochemistry at position 5 was identified and substitution of Ser6 with l-2,3-diaminopropionic acid led to a novel ligand with substantially improved in vitro stability while maintaining subnanomolar GHSR affinity. Despite the highly modified nature of these analogues compared to human ghrelin, ghrelin(1-8) analogues were found to recruit all G protein subtypes (Gαq/11/13/i1/oB) known to associate with GHSR as well as ß-arrestins with low micromolar to nanomolar potencies. The study of these analogues demonstrates the ability to balance desirable ligand properties, including affinity, stability, and potency to produce well-rounded candidate molecules for further in vivo evaluation.

Autocrine proteinase-activated receptor signaling in PC3 prostate cancer cells.

Proteinase-activated receptors (PARs) are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) activated by limited n-terminal proteolysis. PARs are highly expressed in many cancer cells, including prostate cancer (PCa), and regulate various aspects of tumor growth and metastasis. Specific activators of PARs in different physiological and pathophysiological contexts remain poorly defined. In this study, we examined the androgen-independent human prostatic cancer cell line PC3 and find the functional expression of PAR1 and PAR2, but not PAR4. Using genetically encoded PAR cleavage biosensors, we showed that PC3 cells secrete proteolytic enzymes that cleave PARs and trigger autocrine signaling. CRISPR/Cas9 targeting of PAR1 and PAR2 combined with microarray analysis revealed genes that are regulated through this autocrine signaling mechanism. We found several genes that are known PCa prognostic factors or biomarker to be differentially expressed in the PAR1-knockout (KO) and PAR2-KO PC3 cells. We further examined PAR1 and PAR2 regulation of PCa cell proliferation and migration and found that absence of PAR1 promotes PC3 cell migration and suppresses cell proliferation, whereas PAR2 deficiency showed opposite effects. Overall, these results demonstrate that autocrine signaling through PARs is an important regulator of PCa cell function.

Annexin A5 Inhibits Endothelial Inflammation Induced by Lipopolysaccharide-Activated Platelets and Microvesicles via Phosphatidylserine Binding.

Sepsis is caused by a dysregulated immune response to infection and is a leading cause of mortality globally. To date, no specific therapeutics are available to treat the underlying septic response. We and others have shown that recombinant human annexin A5 (Anx5) treatment inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokine production and improves survival in rodent sepsis models. During sepsis, activated platelets release microvesicles (MVs) with externalization of phosphatidylserine to which Anx5 binds with high affinity. We hypothesized that recombinant human Anx5 blocks the pro-inflammatory response induced by activated platelets and MVs in vascular endothelial cells under septic conditions via phosphatidylserine binding. Our data show that treatment with wildtype Anx5 reduced the expression of inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated platelets or MVs in endothelial cells (p < 0.01), which was not observed with Anx5 mutant deficient in phosphatidylserine binding. In addition, wildtype Anx5 treatment, but not Anx5 mutant, improved trans-endothelial electrical resistance (p < 0.05) and reduced monocyte (p < 0.001) and platelet (p < 0.001) adhesion to vascular endothelial cells in septic conditions. In conclusion, recombinant human Anx5 inhibits endothelial inflammation induced by activated platelets and MVs in septic conditions via phosphatidylserine binding, which may contribute to its anti-inflammatory effects in the treatment of sepsis.

Granzyme K contributes to endothelial microvascular damage and leakage during skin inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Granzyme K (GzmK) is a serine protease with minimal presence in healthy tissues while abundant in inflamed tissues. Initially thought to play an exclusive role in immune-mediated cell death, extracellular GzmK can also promote inflammation. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the role of GzmK in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis (AD), the most common inflammatory skin disease. METHODS: A panel of human AD and control samples was analysed to determine if GzmK is elevated. Next, to determine a pathological role for GzmK in AD-like skin inflammation, oxazolone-induced dermatitis was induced in GzmK-/- and wild-type (WT) mice. RESULTS: In human lesional AD samples, there was an increase in the number of GzmK+ cells compared with healthy controls. GzmK-/- mice exhibited reduced overall disease severity characterized by reductions in scaling, erosions and erythema. Surprisingly, the presence of GzmK did not notably increase the overall pro-inflammatory response or epidermal barrier permeability in WT mice; rather, GzmK impaired angiogenesis, increased microvascular damage and microhaemorrhage. Mechanistically, GzmK contributed to vessel damage through cleavage of syndecan-1, a key structural component of the glycocalyx, which coats the luminal surface of vascular endothelia. CONCLUSIONS: GzmK may provide a potential therapeutic target for skin conditions associated with persistent inflammation, vasculitis and pathological angiogenesis.

Human osteoarthritis knee joint synovial fluids cleave and activate Proteinase-Activated Receptor (PAR) mediated signaling.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent joint disorder with increasing worldwide incidence. Mechanistic insights into OA pathophysiology are evolving and there are currently no disease-modifying OA drugs. An increase in protease activity is linked to progressive degradation of the cartilage in OA. Proteases also trigger inflammation through a family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) called the Proteinase-Activated Receptors (PARs). PAR signaling can trigger pro-inflammatory responses and targeting PARs is proposed as a therapeutic approach in OA. Several enzymes can cleave the PAR N-terminus, but the endogenous protease activators of PARs in OA remain unclear. Here we characterized PAR activating enzymes in knee joint synovial fluids from OA patients and healthy donors using genetically encoded PAR biosensor expressing cells. Calcium signaling assays were performed to examine receptor activation. The class and type of enzymes cleaving the PARs was further characterized using protease inhibitors and fluorogenic substrates. We find that PAR1, PAR2 and PAR4 activating enzymes are present in knee joint synovial fluids from healthy controls and OA patients. Compared to healthy controls, PAR1 activating enzymes are elevated in OA synovial fluids while PAR4 activating enzyme levels are decreased. Using enzyme class and type selective inhibitors and fluorogenic substrates we find that multiple PAR activating enzymes are present in OA joint fluids and identify serine proteinases (thrombin and trypsin-like) and matrix metalloproteinases as the major classes of PAR activating enzymes in the OA synovial fluids. Synovial fluid driven increase in calcium signaling was significantly reduced in cells treated with PAR1 and PAR2 antagonists, but not in PAR4 antagonist treated cells. OA associated elevation of PAR1 cleavage suggests that targeting this receptor may be beneficial in the treatment of OA.

Molecular mechanisms regulating Proteinase-Activated Receptors (PARs).

Proteinase-activated receptors (PARs) are a four-member family of G protein-coupled receptors defined by their irreversible proteolytic mechanism of activation. PARs have emerged as important regulators of various physiological responses and are implicated in numerous pathological conditions. Importantly, PAR1 and PAR4 are critical regulators of platelet function, while PAR2 is well established as a driver of inflammatory responses. PAR-targeted drug development efforts are therefore of great interest. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advances in our understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying PAR activation, effector interaction, and signaling. We also provide an overview of the diverse proteolytic enzymes that are now established as PAR regulators and describe the ability of different enzymes to elicit biased signaling through PARs. Finally, we highlight recent advances in the development of PAR-targeted pharmacological agents and discuss recent structure-activity relationship studies.

N-Cinnamoylanthranilates as human TRPA1 modulators: Structure-activity relationships and channel binding sites.

The transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) channel is a non-selective cation channel, which detects noxious stimuli leading to pain, itch and cough. However, the mechanism(s) of channel modulation by many of the known, non-reactive modulators has not been fully elucidated. N-Cinnamoylanthranilic acid derivatives (CADs) contain structural elements from the TRPA1 modulators cinnamaldehyde and flufenamic acid, so it was hypothesized that specific modulators could be found amongst them and more could be learnt about modulation of TRPA1 with these compounds. A series of CADs was therefore screened for agonism and antagonism in HEK293 cells stably transfected with WT-human (h)TRPA1, or C621A, F909A or F944A mutant hTRPA1. Derivatives with electron-withdrawing and/or electron-donating substituents were found to possess different activities. CADs with inductive electron-withdrawing groups were agonists with desensitising effects, and CADs with electron-donating groups were either partial agonists or antagonists. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed that the CADs do not undergo conjugate addition reaction with TRPA1, and that F944 is a key residue involved in the non-covalent modulation of TRPA1 by CADs, as well as many other structurally distinct non-reactive TRPA1 ligands already reported.