Elucidating the Role of InGaAs and InAlAs Buffers on Carrier Dynamics of Tensile-Strained Ge Double Heterostructures.

Extensive research efforts of strained germanium (Ge) are currently underway due to its unique properties, namely, (i) possibility of band gap and strain engineering to achieve a direct band gap, thus exhibiting superior radiative properties, and (ii) higher electron and hole mobilities than Si for upcoming technology nodes. Realizing lasing structures is vital to leveraging the benefits of tensile-strained Ge (ε-Ge). Here, we use a combination of different analytical tools to elucidate the effect of the underlying InGaAs/InAlAs and InGaAs overlaying heterostructures on the material quality and strain state of ε-Ge grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Using X-ray analysis, we show the constancy of tensile strain in sub-50 nm ε-Ge in a quantum-well (QW) heterostructure. Further, effective carrier lifetime using photoconductive decay as a function of buffer type exhibited a high (low) defect-limited carrier lifetime of ∼68 ns (∼13 ns) in 0.61% (0.66%) ε-Ge grown on an InGaAs (InAlAs) buffer. These results correspond well with the measured surface roughness of 1.289 nm (6.303 nm), consistent with the surface effect of the ε-Ge/III-V heterointerface. Furthermore, a reasonably high effective lifetime of ∼78 ns is demonstrated in a QW of ∼30 nm 1.6% ε-Ge, a moderate reduction from ∼99 ns in uncapped ε-Ge, alluding to the surface effect of the overlying heterointerface. Thus, the above results highlight the prime quality of ε-Ge that can be achieved via III-V heteroepitaxy and paves a path for integrated Ge photonics.

GeSn-on-GaAs with photoconductive carrier lifetime >400 ns: role of substrate orientation and atomistic simulation.

Group IV GeSn quantum material finds application in electronics and silicon-compatible photonics. Synthesizing these materials with low defect density and high carrier lifetime is a potential challenge due to lattice mismatch induced defects and tin segregation at higher growth temperature. Recent advancements in the growth of these GeSn materials on Si, Ge, GaAs, and with substrate orientations, demonstrated different properties using epitaxial and chemical deposition methods. This article addresses the effect of GaAs substrate orientation and misorientation on the materials' properties and carrier lifetimes in epitaxial Ge0.94Sn0.06 layers. With starting GaAs substrates of (100)/2°, (100)/6°, (110) and (111)A orientations, Ge0.94Sn0.06 epitaxial layers were grown with an intermediate Ge buffer layer by molecular beam epitaxy and analyzed by several analytical tools. X-ray analysis displayed good crystalline quality, and Raman spectroscopy measurements showed blue shifts in phonon wavenumber due to biaxial compressive strain in Ge0.94Sn0.06 epilayers. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy analysis confirmed the defect-free heterointerface of Ge0.94Sn0.06/Ge/GaAs heterostructure. Minority carrier lifetimes of the unintentionally doped n-type Ge0.94Sn0.06 epilayers displayed photoconductive carrier lifetimes of >400 ns on (100)/6°, 319 ns on (100)/2°, and 434 ns on (110) GaAs substrate at 1500 nm excitation wavelength. On the other hand, Ge0.94Sn0.06 layer showed poor carrier lifetime on (111)A GaAs substrate. The observed differences in carrier lifetimes were correlated with the formation energy of the Ge on (100)/6° and (100)/2° GaAs heterointerface using Stillinger-Weber interatomic potential model-based atomistic simulation with different heterointerfacial bonding by Synopsys QuantumATK tool. Total energy computation of 6280-atom Ge/GaAs supercell on (100)/6° leads to lower formation energy than (100)/2°, making it more thermodynamically stable. Hence, the growth of the GeSn/III-V material system using misoriented (100) substrates that are more thermodynamically stable will enhance the performances of optoelectronic devices.

Mapping the Interfacial Electronic Structure of Strain-Engineered Epitaxial Germanium Grown on In x Al1-x As Stressors.

The indirect nature of silicon (Si) emission currently limits the monolithic integration of photonic circuitry with Si electronics. Approaches to circumvent the optical shortcomings of Si include band structure engineering via alloying (e.g., Si x Ge1-x-y Sn y ) and/or strain engineering of group IV materials (e.g., Ge). Although these methods enhance emission, many are incapable of realizing practical lasing structures because of poor optical and electrical confinement. Here, we report on strong optoelectronic confinement in a highly tensile-strained (ε) Ge/In0.26Al0.74As heterostructure as determined by X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS). To this end, an ultrathin (∼10 nm) ε-Ge epilayer was directly integrated onto the In0.26Al0.74As stressor using an in situ, dual-chamber molecular beam epitaxy approach. Combining high-resolution X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy, a strain state as high as ε ∼ 1.75% was demonstrated. Moreover, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy confirmed the highly ordered, pseudomorphic nature of the as-grown ε-Ge/In0.26Al0.74As heterostructure. The heterointerfacial electronic structure was likewise probed via XPS, revealing conduction- and valence band offsets (ΔE C and ΔE V) of 1.25 ± 0.1 and 0.56 ± 0.1 eV, respectively. Finally, we compare our empirical results with previously published first-principles calculations investigating the impact of heterointerfacial stoichiometry on the ε-Ge/In x Al1-x As energy band offset, demonstrating excellent agreement between experimental and theoretical results under an As0.5Ge0.5 interface stoichiometry exhibiting up to two monolayers of heterointerfacial As-Ge diffusion. Taken together, these findings reveal a new route toward the realization of on-Si photonics.

Magnetic Field Sensing by Exploiting Giant Nonstrain-Mediated Magnetodielectric Response in Epitaxial Composites.

Heteroepitaxial magnetoelectric (ME) composites are promising for the development of a new generation of multifunctional devices, such as sensors, tunable electronics, and energy harvesters. However, challenge remains in realizing practical epitaxial composite materials, mainly due to the interfacial lattice misfit strain between magnetostrictive and piezoelectric phases and strong substrate clamping that reduces the strain-mediated ME coupling. Here, we demonstrate a nonstrain-mediated ME coupling in PbZr0.52Ti0.48O3 (PZT)/La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 (LSMO) heteroepitaxial composites that resolves these challenges, thereby, providing a giant magnetodielectric (MD) response of ∼27% at 310 K. The factors driving the magnitude of the MD response were found to be the magnetoresistance-coupled dielectric dispersion and piezoelectric strain-mediated modulation of magnetic moment. Building upon this giant MD response, we demonstrate a magnetic field sensor architecture exhibiting a high sensitivity of 54.7 pF/T and desirable linearity with respect to the applied external magnetic field. The demonstrated technique provides a new mechanism for detecting magnetic fields based upon the MD effect.

In Situ SiO2 Passivation of Epitaxial (100) and (110)InGaAs by Exploiting TaSiO x Atomic Layer Deposition Process.

In this work, an in situ SiO2 passivation technique using atomic layer deposition (ALD) during the growth of gate dielectric TaSiO x on solid-source molecular beam epitaxy grown (100)In x Ga1-x As and (110)In x Ga1-x As on InP substrates is reported. X-ray reciprocal space mapping demonstrated quasi-lattice matched In x Ga1-x As epitaxy on crystallographically oriented InP substrates. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy revealed sharp heterointerfaces between ALD TaSiO x and (100) and (110)In x Ga1-x As epilayers, wherein the presence of a consistent growth of an ∼0.8 nm intentionally formed SiO2 interfacial passivating layer (IPL) is also observed on each of (100) and (110)In x Ga1-x As. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed the incorporation of SiO2 in the composite TaSiO x , and valence band offset (ΔE V) values for TaSiO x relative to (100) and (110)In x Ga1-x As orientations of 2.52 ± 0.05 and 2.65 ± 0.05 eV, respectively, were extracted. The conduction band offset (ΔE C) was calculated to be 1.3 ± 0.1 eV for (100)In x Ga1-x As and 1.43 ± 0.1 eV for (110)In x Ga1-x As, using TaSiO x band gap values of 4.60 and 4.82 eV, respectively, determined from the fitted O 1s XPS loss spectra, and the literature-reported composition-dependent In x Ga1-x As band gap. The in situ passivation of In x Ga1-x As using SiO2 IPL during ALD of TaSiO x and the relatively large ΔE V and ΔE C values reported in this work are expected to aid in the future development of thermodynamically stable high-κ gate dielectrics on In x Ga1-x As with reduced gate leakage, particularly under low-power device operation.

Transport Across Heterointerfaces of Amorphous Niobium Oxide and Crystallographically Oriented Epitaxial Germanium.

Because of the high carrier mobility of germanium (Ge) and high dielectric permittivity of amorphous niobium pentoxide (a-Nb2O5), Ge/a-Nb2O5 heterostructures offer several advantages for the rapidly developing field of oxide-semiconductor-based multifunctional devices. To this end, we investigate the growth, structural, band alignment, and metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) electrical properties of physical vapor-deposited Nb2O5 on crystallographically oriented (100), (110), and (111)Ge epilayers. The as-deposited Nb2O5 dielectrics were found to be in the amorphous state, demonstrating an abrupt oxide/semiconductor heterointerface with respect to Ge, when examined via low- and high-magnification cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy. Additionally, variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsometry and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used to independently determine the a-Nb2O5 band gap, yielding a direct gap value of 4.30 eV. Moreover, analysis of the heterointerfacial energy band alignment between a-Nb2O5 and epitaxial Ge revealed valance band offsets (ΔEV) greater than 2.5 eV, following the relation ΔEV(111) > ΔEV(110) > ΔEV(100). Similarly, utilizing the empirically determined a-Nb2O5 band gap, conduction band offsets (ΔEC) greater than 0.75 eV were found, likewise following the relation ΔEC(110) > ΔEC(100) > ΔEC(111). Leveraging the reduced ΔEC observed at the a-Nb2O5/Ge heterointerface, we also perform the first experimental investigation into Schottky barrier height reduction on n-Ge using a 2 nm a-Nb2O5 interlayer, resulting in a 20× increase in reverse-bias current density and improved Ohmic behavior.

Tailoring the Valence Band Offset of Al2O3 on Epitaxial GaAs(1-y)Sb(y) with Tunable Antimony Composition.

Mixed-anion, GaAs1-ySby metamorphic materials with tunable antimony (Sb) compositions extending from 0 to 100%, grown by solid source molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), were used to investigate the evolution of interfacial chemistry under different passivation conditions. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to determine the change in chemical state progression as a function of surface preclean and passivation, as well as the valence band offsets, conduction band offsets, energy band parameters, and bandgap of atomic layer deposited Al2O3 on GaAs1-ySby for the first time, which is further corroborated by X-ray analysis and cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy. Detailed XPS analysis revealed that the near midpoint composition, GaAs0.45Sb0.55, passivation scheme exhibits a GaAs-like surface, and that precleaning by HCl and (NH4)2S passivation are mandatory to remove native oxides from the surface of GaAsSb. The valence band offsets, ΔEv, were determined from the difference in the core level to the valence band maximum binding energy of GaAs1-ySby. A valence band offset of >2 eV for all Sb compositions was found, indicating the potential of utilizing Al2O3 on GaAs1-ySby (0 ≤ y ≤ 1) for p-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) applications. Moreover, Al2O3 showed conduction band offset of ∼2 eV on GaAs1-ySby (0 ≤ y ≤ 1), suggesting Al2O3 dielectric can also be used for n-type MOS applications. The surface passivation of GaAs0.45Sb0.55 materials and the detailed band alignment analysis of Al2O3 high-κ dielectrics on tunable Sb composition, GaAs1-ySby materials, provides a pathway to utilize GaAsSb materials in future microelectronic and optoelectronic applications.

Heterogeneously-Grown Tunable Tensile Strained Germanium on Silicon for Photonic Devices.

The growth, structural and optical properties, and energy band alignments of tensile-strained germanium (ε-Ge) epilayers heterogeneously integrated on silicon (Si) were demonstrated for the first time. The tunable ε-Ge thin films were achieved using a composite linearly graded InxGa1-xAs/GaAs buffer architecture grown via solid source molecular beam epitaxy. High-resolution X-ray diffraction and micro-Raman spectroscopic analysis confirmed a pseudomorphic ε-Ge epitaxy whereby the degree of strain varied as a function of the In(x)Ga(1-x)As buffer indium alloy composition. Sharp heterointerfaces between each ε-Ge epilayer and the respective In(x)Ga(1-x)As strain template were confirmed by detailed strain analysis using cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy. Low-temperature microphotoluminescence measurements confirmed both direct and indirect bandgap radiative recombination between the Γ and L valleys of Ge to the light-hole valence band, with L-lh bandgaps of 0.68 and 0.65 eV demonstrated for the 0.82 ± 0.06% and 1.11 ± 0.03% strained Ge on Si, respectively. Type-I band alignments and valence band offsets of 0.27 and 0.29 eV for the ε-Ge/In(0.11)Ga(0.89)As (0.82%) and ε-Ge/In(0.17)Ga(0.83)As (1.11%) heterointerfaces, respectively, show promise for ε-Ge carrier confinement in future nanoscale optoelectronic devices. Therefore, the successful heterogeneous integration of tunable tensile-strained Ge on Si paves the way for the design and implementation of novel Ge-based photonic devices on the Si technology platform.

Functionally Graded Interfaces: Role and Origin of Internal Electric Field and Modulated Electrical Response.

We report the tunable electrical response in functionally graded interfaces in lead-free ferroelectric thin films. Multilayer thin film graded heterostructures were synthesized on platinized silicon substrate with oxide layers of varying thickness. Interestingly, the graded heterostructure thin films exhibited shift of the hysteresis loops on electric field and polarization axes depending upon the direction of an applied bias. A diode-like characteristics was observed in current-voltage behavior under forward and reverse bias. This modulated electrical behavior was attributed to the perturbed dynamics of charge carriers under internal bias (self-bias) generated due to the increased skewness of the potential wells. The cyclic sweeping of voltage further demonstrated memristor-like current-voltage behavior in functionally graded heterostructure devices. The presence of an internal bias assisted the generation of photocurrent by facilitating the separation of photogenerated charges. These novel findings provide opportunity to design new circuit components for the next generation of microelectronic device architectures.

Magnetotransport Properties of Epitaxial Ge/AlAs Heterostructures Integrated on GaAs and Silicon.

The magnetotransport properties of epitaxial Ge/AlAs heterostructures with different growth conditions and substrate architectures have been studied under ±9 T magnetic field and at 390 mK temperature. Systematic mobility measurements of germanium (Ge) epilayers grown on GaAs substrates at growth temperatures from 350 to 450 °C allow us to extract a precise growth window for device-quality Ge, corroborated by structural and morphological properties. Our results on Si substrate using a composite metamorphic AlAs/GaAs buffer at 400 °C Ge growth temperature, show that the Ge/AlAs system can be tailored to have a single carrier transport while keeping the charge solely in the Ge layer. Single carrier transport confined to the Ge layer is demonstrated by the weak-localization quantum correction to the conductivity observed at low magnetic fields and 390 mK temperature. The weak localization effect points to a near-absence of spin-orbit interaction for carriers in the electronically active layer and is used here for the first time to pinpoint Ge as this active layer. Thus, the epitaxial Ge grown on Si using AlAs/GaAs buffer architecture is a promising candidate for next-generation energy-efficient fin field-effect transistor applications.

Lead-free epitaxial ferroelectric material integration on semiconducting (100) Nb-doped SrTiO3 for low-power non-volatile memory and efficient ultraviolet ray detection.

We report lead-free ferroelectric based resistive switching non-volatile memory (NVM) devices with epitaxial (1-x)BaTiO3-xBiFeO3 (x = 0.725) (BT-BFO) film integrated on semiconducting (100) Nb (0.7%) doped SrTiO3 (Nb:STO) substrates. The piezoelectric force microscopy (PFM) measurement at room temperature demonstrated ferroelectricity in the BT-BFO thin film. PFM results also reveal the repeatable polarization inversion by poling, manifesting its potential for read-write operation in NVM devices. The electroforming-free and ferroelectric polarization coupled electrical behaviour demonstrated excellent resistive switching with high retention time, cyclic endurance, and low set/reset voltages. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy was utilized to determine the band alignment at the BT-BFO and Nb:STO heterojunction, and it exhibited staggered band alignment. This heterojunction is found to behave as an efficient ultraviolet photo-detector with low rise and fall time. The architecture also demonstrates half-wave rectification under low and high input signal frequencies, where the output distortion is minimal. The results provide avenue for an electrical switch that can regulate the pixels in low or high frequency images. Combined this work paves the pathway towards designing future generation low-power ferroelectric based microelectronic devices by merging both electrical and photovoltaic properties of BT-BFO materials.

Integration of lead-free ferroelectric on HfO2/Si (100) for high performance non-volatile memory applications.

We introduce a novel lead-free ferroelectric thin film (1-x)BaTiO3-xBa(Cu1/3Nb2/3)O3 (x = 0.025) (BT-BCN) integrated on to HfO2 buffered Si for non-volatile memory (NVM) applications. Piezoelectric force microscopy (PFM), x-ray diffraction, and high resolution transmission electron microscopy were employed to establish the ferroelectricity in BT-BCN thin films. PFM study reveals that the domains reversal occurs with 180° phase change by applying external voltage, demonstrating its effectiveness for NVM device applications. X-ray photoelectron microscopy was used to investigate the band alignments between atomic layer deposited HfO2 and pulsed laser deposited BT-BCN films. Programming and erasing operations were explained on the basis of band-alignments. The structure offers large memory window, low leakage current, and high and low capacitance values that were easily distinguishable even after ~10(6) s, indicating strong charge storage potential. This study explains a new approach towards the realization of ferroelectric based memory devices integrated on Si platform and also opens up a new possibility to embed the system within current complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor processing technology.

Integration of SrTiO3 on crystallographically oriented epitaxial germanium for low-power device applications.

SrTiO3 integration on crystallographic oriented (100), (110), and (111) epitaxial germanium (Ge) exhibits a potential for a new class of nanoscale transistors. Germanium is attractive due to its superior transport properties while SrTiO3 (STO) is promising due to its high relative permittivity, both being critical parameters for next-generation low-voltage and low-leakage metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors. The sharp heterointerface between STO and each crystallographically oriented Ge layer, studied by cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy, as well as band offset parameters at each heterojunction offers a significant advancement for designing a new generation of ferroelectric-germanium based multifunctional devices. Moreover, STO, when used as an interlayer between metal and n-type (4 × 10(18) cm(-3)) epitaxial Ge in metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) structures, showed a 1000 times increase in current density as well as a decrease in specific contact resistance. Furthermore, the inclusion of STO on n-Ge demonstrated the first experimental findings of the MIS behavior of STO on n-Ge.

Heterointerface engineering of broken-gap InAs/GaSb multilayer structures.

Broken-gap InAs/GaSb strain balanced multilayer structures were grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), and their structural, morphological, and band alignment properties were analyzed. Precise shutter sequence during the MBE growth process, enable to achieve the strain balanced structure. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy exhibited sharp heterointerfaces, and the lattice line extended from the top GaSb layer to the bottom InAs layer. X-ray analysis further confirmed a strain balanced InAs/GaSb multilayer structure. A smooth surface morphology with surface roughness of ∼0.5 nm was demonstrated. The effective barrier height -0.15 eV at the GaSb/InAs heterointerface was determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and it was further corroborated by simulation. These results are important to demonstrate desirable characteristics of mixed As/Sb material systems for high-performance and low-power tunnel field-effect transistor applications.

Heterogeneous integration of epitaxial Ge on Si using AlAs/GaAs buffer architecture: suitability for low-power fin field-effect transistors.

Germanium-based materials and device architectures have recently appeared as exciting material systems for future low-power nanoscale transistors and photonic devices. Heterogeneous integration of germanium (Ge)-based materials on silicon (Si) using large bandgap buffer architectures could enable the monolithic integration of electronics and photonics. In this paper, we report on the heterogeneous integration of device-quality epitaxial Ge on Si using composite AlAs/GaAs large bandgap buffer, grown by molecular beam epitaxy that is suitable for fabricating low-power fin field-effect transistors required for continuing transistor miniaturization. The superior structural quality of the integrated Ge on Si using AlAs/GaAs was demonstrated using high-resolution x-ray diffraction analysis. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy confirmed relaxed Ge with high crystalline quality and a sharp Ge/AlAs heterointerface. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy demonstrated a large valence band offset at the Ge/AlAs interface, as compared to Ge/GaAs heterostructure, which is a prerequisite for superior carrier confinement. The temperature-dependent electrical transport properties of the n-type Ge layer demonstrated a Hall mobility of 370 cm(2)/Vs at 290 K and 457 cm(2)/Vs at 90 K, which suggests epitaxial Ge grown on Si using an AlAs/GaAs buffer architecture would be a promising candidate for next-generation high-performance and energy-efficient fin field-effect transistor applications.

Reduced erbium-doped ceria nanoparticles: one nano-host applicable for simultaneous optical down- and up-conversions.

This paper introduces a new synthesis procedure to form erbium-doped ceria nanoparticles (EDC NPs) that can act as an optical medium for both up-conversion and down-conversion in the same time. This synthesis process results qualitatively in a high concentration of Ce(3+) ions required to obtain high fluorescence efficiency in the down-conversion process. Simultaneously, the synthesized nanoparticles contain the molecular energy levels of erbium that are required for up-conversion. Therefore, the synthesized EDC NPs can emit visible light when excited with either UV or IR photons. This opens new opportunities for applications where emission of light via both up- and down-conversions from a single nanomaterial is desired such as solar cells and bio-imaging.

Tensile-strained nanoscale Ge/In0.16Ga0.84As heterostructure for tunnel field-effect transistor.

Tensile strained Ge/In0.16Ga0.84As heterostructure was grown in situ by molecular beam epitaxy using two separated growth chambers for Ge and III-V materials. Controlled growth conditions led to the presence of 0.75% in-plane tensile strain within Ge layer. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy confirmed pseudomorphic Ge with high crystalline quality and a sharp Ge/In0.16Ga0.84As heterointerface. Atomic force microscopy revealed a uniform two-dimensional cross-hatch surface morphology with a root-mean-square roughness of 1.26 nm. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy demonstrated reduced tunneling-barrier-height compared with Ge/GaAs heterostructure. The superior structural properties suggest tensile strained Ge/In0.16Ga0.84As heterostructure would be a promising candidate for high-performance and energy-efficient tunnel field-effect transistor applications.

Germanium Based Field-Effect Transistors: Challenges and Opportunities.

The performance of strained silicon (Si) as the channel material for today's metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors may be reaching a plateau. New channel materials with high carrier mobility are being investigated as alternatives and have the potential to unlock an era of ultra-low-power and high-speed microelectronic devices. Chief among these new materials is germanium (Ge). This work reviews the two major remaining challenges that Ge based devices must overcome if they are to replace Si as the channel material, namely, heterogeneous integration of Ge on Si substrates, and developing a suitable gate stack. Next, Ge is compared to compound III-V materials in terms of p-channel device performance to review how it became the first choice for PMOS devices. Different Ge device architectures, including surface channel and quantum well configurations, are reviewed. Finally, state-of-the-art Ge device results and future prospects are also discussed.

BaTiO3 integration with nanostructured epitaxial (100), (110), and (111) germanium for multifunctional devices.

Ferroelectric-germanium heterostructures have a strong potential for multifunctional devices. Germanium (Ge) is attractive due to its higher electron and hole mobilities while ferroelectric BaTiO3 is promising due to its high relative permittivity, which can make next-generation low-voltage and low-leakage metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors. Here, we investigate the growth, structural, chemical, and band alignment properties of pulsed laser deposited BaTiO3 on epitaxial (100)Ge, (110)Ge, and (111)Ge layers. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy micrographs show the amorphous nature of the BaTiO3 layer and also show a sharp heterointerface between BaTiO3 and Ge. The appearance of strong Pendellösung oscillation fringes from high-resolution X-ray diffraction implies the presence of parallel and sharp heterointerfaces. The valence band offset relation of ΔEV(100) ≥ ΔEV(111) > ΔEV(110) and the conduction band offset relation of ΔE(C)(110) > ΔE(C)(111) ≥ ΔE(C)(100) on crystallographically oriented Ge offer significant advancement for designing new-generation ferroelectric-germanium-based multifunctional devices.

Kinetic control of self-catalyzed indium phosphide nanowires, nanocones, and nanopillars.

The morphological phase diagram is reported for InP nanostructures grown on InP (111)B as a function of temperature and V/III ratio. Indium droplets were used as the catalyst and were generated in situ in the metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxy reactor. Three distinct nanostructures were observed: wires, cones, and pillars. It is proposed that the shape depends on the relative rates of indium phosphide deposition via the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) and vapor-phase epitaxy (VPE) processes. The rate of VLS is relatively insensitive to temperature and results in vertical wire growth starting at 350 degrees C. By contrast, the rate of VPE accelerates with temperature and drives the lateral growth of cones at 385 degrees C and then pillars at 400 degrees C.